Class 7 Social Science Chapter 6 Notes The Age of Reorganisation
By continuous living tradition and a vital power of rejuvenescence, this land has readjusted itself through unnumbered transformations. – Jagdish Chandra Bose (1917)
Bhavisha and Dhruv had recovered from their journey to the Maury a empire and were itching for another adventure. They decide to use Itihasa again and landed in a new historical period. They came across a collection of art pieces, each one quite different from the other. (See Fig. 6.1.1) They wondered—could these artefacts belong to multiple kingdoms rather than just one? They guessed right. In this chapter we will travel over a fairly long period. Here we go…
Very little is known about Ashoka’s successors to the throne. It is generally accepted, however, that the last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander- in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga. This led to a breakup of the empire — hardly half a century after Ashoka, as we mentioned in the last chapter. Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent, which, often, were earlier tributary kingdoms under the overlordship of the Maurya empire. The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent.
This period is also known as the ‘age of reorganisation’ by some scholars as the existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms that were constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly in that age, as did people’s lives.
Fig. Prominent dynasties of India during the age of reorganisation
While working on the timeline, did you notice the transition from BCE to CE? Remember what you learned in the Grade 6 chapter Timeline and Sources of History’ about how time is measured in history.
The ‘new’ kingdoms now competed for territorial control. Peaceful methods like matrimonial alliances between neighbour¬ing kingdoms, or the use of force in warfare, were means of gaining control. Remember that there was constant wrestling for control over areas along the borders, as gaining control over them was important to keep the kingdom safe from attacks.
Together with those political events, there was a burst in the development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching cultural exchanges. We will get a peek into this in the following sections.
Surge of the Shungas
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed the ashvamedha yajna, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the previous Maurya Empire (compare their two maps), he kept it safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks, after some initial military campaign against them. But, again, the empire did not last long after him — a century later, it was gone.
The period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought nevertheless continued to flurish.
Fig. Scene from the Ramayaṇa in which King Rama is seen performing the ashvamedha yajna (19th century painting, National Museum)
The ashvamedha yajna was a Vedic ritual conducted by many rulers to declare their position as the king. In this ritual, a horse accompanied by soldiers was left to wander freely. Any territory that the horse crossed unchallenged was considered to become a part of the king’s empire. If any ruler stopped the horse, it led to a battle to determine supremacy.
Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works. Do you recall some aspects of the Yoga Sutras in your Physical Education and Well-being classes in Grade 6? These Yoga Sutras were compiled by Patanjali during this period.
The Shungas patronised literature, art and architecture. The Bharhut Stupa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) presents us with beautiful examples of Shunga art. It was probably built during the time of Ashoka, but the Shungas added beautifully carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s life. These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.
1. Fig. Railings at the Bharhut Stupa.
2. Fig. Carving ofLakshmi on a railing.
3. Fig. A group of singers and dancers.
4. Elephants holding up the wheel of dharma
Some Shunga Contribution to Art
Fig. 1. Pillar with a Greek warrior.
Fig. 2. Male figure.
Fig. 3. Woman with a child.
Fig. 4. Woman with a fan.
Fig. 5. A vase.
Fig. 6. Female fiure with hair ornaments, terracotta.
Fig. 7. Royal family.
Fig. 8. Bronze bangles covered with a thin layer of gold.
Fig. 9. Comb of ivory.
Fig. 10. Beads of a necklace.
The Satavahanas
From the limited evidence available, the Shungas seem to have waged wars with many of their neighbouring regions. This may have included the Satavahanas, who ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Shunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as Andhras’, the Satavahanas were a powerful dynasty and their empire largely comprised of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, with different capital cities at different times — the most famous were Amravatl and Pratishthana (Paithan). Trade and commerce appear to have flourished in the Satavahana kingdom.
Coins issued by the Satavahana rulers have been found in various regions of India, from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh — India’s western and eastern coasts. Indeed, many coins depicted ships, suggesting that maritime trade was an important part of economic life. The type of ship depicted on the coin above suggests advanced shipbuilding and navigation technologies.
Fig. A Satavahana coin bearing the image of a seafaring ship with two masts. Notice how the masts of the ship are prominently depicted with intersecting lines, possibly representing sails; the wavy lines below represent oceanic waters.
Agriculture flourished in the Krishna- Go davari river system, which provided economic stability to the kingdom. The Satavahanas had active trade networks that reached as far as the Roman Empire and included an exchange of goods like spices, textiles, sandalwood, and luxury items like gold-plated pearls, ivory, etc. Imports included glass and perfumed ointments. Tolls and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.
Economic prosperity and a relatively peaceful political period facilitated the development of literature, art and culture, to which the Satavahanas made significant contributions.
Fig. The Naneghat Caves near Pune, located close to a major trade route, were used for collection of tolls and taxes, and as resting places for traders.
Life under the Satavahanas
In the Satavahana tradition, princes were often named after their mothers. Thus Gautamiutra Satakarni was named after his mother, Gautami Balashri She was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved in Nashik showing her inflence in the kingdom
Another set of inscriptions found in the Naneghat caves near Pune (Fig. 6.9) focuses on a Satavahana widow queen who, remarkably, performed several Vedic rituals, including the ashvamedha yajna. The inscriptions mention Vedic gods like Indra, Chandra, and Surya. We also get a glimpse of the queen’s donations (dana): land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins, and other items to priests, guests, workers, scholars, and monks.
These inscriptions are in the Brahmi script and include a few numerals (that is, symbols for numbers) which, at times, resemble today’s shapes, as shown below. This is one of the many evidences showing that modern numerals ultimately originated in India.
The Satavahanas were devout followers of Vasudeva (another name for Krishna), although they also patronised other schools of thought, which flourished during their rule. For instance, Satavahana kings often granted tax-free agricultural land to Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks, helping them to pursue their studies and practices.
Fig. The Karla caves (near Lonavala in present-day Maharashtra) to which the Satavahanas contributed during their reign. These caves were made for Buddhist monks. Notice the magnificent pillars and the stone replica of a stupa in the centre — all of it carved out of a rocky hillside!
Fig. A yakṣha (a minor deity associated with nature) from the Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra, carved in the Satavahana period.
In the 3rd century CE, the Satavahana Empire fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms. Several factors contributed to its disintegration, the most significant one being weak central control and a gradual economic decline. Once again, this will pave the way for regional powers to assert or reassert their dominance and establish new kingdoms.
Coming of the Chedis
Let us go back a little. Do you remember the Kalinga war mentioned in the previous chapter? After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.
Kharavela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower of Jain teachings; he was sometimes called bhikshu-raja or monk-king, although he respected all schools of thoughts. Near Bhubaneswar, the famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves, likely developed for Jain monks, feature intricate panels and statues, and spacious rooms carved into the rock, showcasing the skill of the craftsmen. The design and craftsmanship of these caves make them notable examples of‘rock-cut architecture’, a style of architecture that we will turn to in higher classes.
One of the caves prominently displays the Hathlgumpha inscription, written in Brahmi script, which records King Kharavela’s accomplishments year after year, including his victorious military campaigns and his benevolent works for the welfare of his people. Kharavela also proudly declares that he created a ‘council of ascetics and sages’ from a hundred regions and is ‘accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect and repairer of every temple’. Once again, a ruler takes pride in extending his protection to all schools of thought. This is a fundamental part of what we may call the ‘Indian ethos’.
Fig. 1. Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
Fig. 2. The Hāthīgumphā inscription.
Fig. 3. Carved panel showing a scene from the Rāmāyaṇa
Kingdoms and Life in the South
In India’s southern region, this period, between the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, saw the rise to prominence of three powerful kingdoms—the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas—which often competed with each other for control over the South, while also contributing to the region’s growth in trade and culture. Let’s remember how Ashoka’s empire stopped at those south Indian kingdoms (which he mentions in his edicts), which suggests that they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power. And although Kharavela claims that he defeated an alliance of south Indian kings that threatened his own territory, the location of that battle is unknown and he does not seem to have invaded the southern region.
Fig. Kingdoms in the South (note that borders are approximate and fluctuated in time).
That period saw the advent of many poets whose works, collectively known as ‘Sangam literature’, defined the entire era: it came to be known as the ‘Sangam Age’. The word sangam is derived from the Sanskrit sangha, which translates to ‘association’ and ‘coming together’ — in this context, referring to an assembly of the poets. The Sangam literature, the oldest in south India, consists of several collections or anthologies of poems and is much consulted by historians who investigate the society and culture of the times. Primarily, Sangam poetry expresses with great skill and delicacy personal emotions such as love or societal values like heroism and generosity.
The Cholas
The Sangams refer to three ‘crowned kings’ — the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The Chola king Karikala is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pandyas and established his supremacy.
Silappadikaram: The Tale of the Anklet
Fig. Statue of Kaṇṇagi, Chennai
This famous epic, composed soon after the Sangam collections, tells the story of Kannagi, who lived happily with her husband Kovalan in the prosperous Chola capital city of Puhar (identified with Kaveripattinam seen earlier). However, Kovalan fell in love with a dancer and eventually lost all his wealth over her. Realising his mistake, he returned to Kannagi, who forgave him. They then travelled to Madurai, the capital of the Pandya kingdom, hoping to rebuild their lives.
To start anew, Kannagi gave Kovalan one of her anklets to sell; however, he was falsely accused of theft and executed by the Pandya king. Devastated, Kannagi proved his innocence by revealing her second anklet. The king, realising his mistake, died of shock. Kannagi then cursed Madurai, invoking the god of fire who destroyed the city. She then walked further west to the Chera kingdom, where she was honoured as a goddess. Even today, Kannagi is worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Silappadikaram’s exquisite poetry thus centres on the principles of justice and the ruler’s dharma to protect it. It also takes us through cities rich in traded goods, through three kingdoms, and also through several schools of thought.
Karikala undertook many projects for the benefit of the people. Among them is the Kallanai or Grand Anicut, a complex water diversion system located at a geographically strategic point just downstream of the Srirangam island. It helped to divert waters from the Kaveri to the central and southern parts of the Kaveri delta. This enabled more land to be brought under cultivation, earning this area the name ‘rice bowl of the South’. Restored several times in the course of time, it is still in use and helps millions of people in Tamil Nadu by providing water for irrigation and thus supporting agriculture in the region.
Fig. A view of the Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut
The Cheras
Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji, present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. They played an essential role in shaping the region’s cultural and economic history, encouraging the growth of Tamil literature and patronising Sangam poets.
The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting many goods from India to the outside world. The kingdom became a hub for the export of spices, timber, ivory and pearls.
The Pandyas
The Pandyas’ rule over parts of Tamil Nadu and the surrounding regions, with their capital at present-day Madurai, goes back several centuries BCE. Successive kings expanded the Pandyan kingdom. In his work Indika, Megasthenes mentions this kingdom as a prosperous one, with a strong administration and involved in active trade with distant powers like the Greeks and Romans, apart from much internal trade (Kharavela, for instance, states that he gets hundreds of pearls brought from the Pandya kingdom). The Pandyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent. The later Pandyas also contributed greatly to the art, architecture, and overall prosperity of the region.
The Pandyas left many inscriptions in which their kings asserted their great concern for their subjects’ welfare and their encouragements to all schools of thought and belief.
Invasions of the Indo-Greeks
Having completed our brief journey into south India, it is time to return to the north, where a very different kind of development is about to occur. So far, we have only visited a few native dynasties; yet the same period also witnessed the arrival of invaders who entered through the northwest frontier and took control of the northwestern, northern, and central regions of the Subcontinent.
Fig. The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha
Let us first examine the legacy of Alexander’s brief campaign in the Indus plains. While retreating from the areas he had conquered, he left satraps behind. Over time, these regional rulers established their independent domains and came to be known as ‘Indo-Greeks’.
After the decline of the Mauryas, the areas in the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target for the Indo-Greeks. However, while they arrived as conquerors, they were much influenced by the rich local culture. This cultural interaction led to a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life, shaping the cultural landscape of the region.
The Heliodorus pillar, near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), is a notable example of such connections. It is named after an Indo-Greek ambassador, who in his inscription praises Vasudeva as the ‘god of gods’. The inscription also states, “Three immortal precepts (footsteps) […] when practised lead to heaven: selfrestraint, charity, consciousness.”
During excavations in north India, archaeologists have found many Indo-Greeks coins, which have provided most of the information we have about these rulers. Those coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other. However, some coins, instead, depicted Indian deities like Vasudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmi The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas (see a little below)
Don’t Miss Out
The Shakas (sometimes called Indo-Scythians) also invaded the northwest of the Subcontinent and ruled from the latter part of the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Their kingdoms rose to power after the Indo-Greeks, and they were in power until the arrival of the Kuṣhāṇas (see below). It was during this period that the Śhaka Samvat calendar was developed. It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (except from January–March, when it is behind by 79 years). It was adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.
Fig. Notice how dates are provided in both the Gregorian and Śhaka Samvat eras on this official publication of the Government of India.
The Emergence of the Kushanas
The Kushanas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent.
When he was not busy with his military campaigns, Kanishka encouraged art and culture, leading to the development of new artistic styles.
Fig. Headless statue of King Kaniṣhka
This famous ‘headless’ statue is of King Kanishka, probably the most powerful ruler of the Kushana dynasty. The Brahmi inscription on the statue reads, ‘maharaja rajadhiraja devaputra kanishka’, that is, ‘The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kanishka’.
On the first coin, Kanishka is shown holding a spear, titled ‘King of Kings’, while the other side features Buddha with the inscription BOAAO (Buddha) in Greek script. On the second coin, an emperor appears on one side, and Shiva with the bull Nandi on the other.
Let’s reflect on the following:
Why would a powerful ruler feature Buddha and Shiva on his coins? What does it say about his values and priorities?
Can you find modern examples of such symbolic currency?
The Kushanas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route (on the next page), and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.
Continuing the trend set under the Indo-Greek rulers, Kushana art and architecture, exemplified by the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek styles. The sculptures feature a variety of deities reflecting the peaceful co-existence of various schools of thought. This era saw the rise of representations of deities—like Surya or the sun god—which looked more similar to humans and the increase in the development of religious art, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.
The Gandhara style, which emerged in the western regions of Punjab, blended Greco- Roman elements with Indian features. Most sculptures and artefacts from this tradition were crafted in intricate detail from grey- black schist stone. In particular, sculptors produced many fine Buddha images with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.
Fig. Head of a bodhisattva (or future Buddha) from the Gandhara School of Art. Note the fusion of Indian and Greek features.
Fig. Some of the trade routes of the ancient world. The network marked in green shows the Silk Route connecting China with the Mediterranean world and passing through central Asia, Persia, etc.
Fig. Kubera, God of ‘wealth’ from the Mathura School of Art. Did you miss the prominent moustache? The moustache is a distinguishing feature of some Indian sculptures.
The Mathura style developed in the Mathura region of present- day Uttar Pradesh and is known for its distinct Indian style. Unlike the Gandhara style, it primarily used red sandstone for its sculptures and reflects less influence from Greco- Roman aesthetics. This art form is known for its depictions of Indian deities, including Kubera, Lakshml, Shiva, Buddha, yakshas and yakshinls and generally produced fuller figures with smooth modelling.
Despite the political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially Hindu and Buddhist ones). It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with, in particular, the composition of major Indian texts such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana (refer to the chapter “Unity in Diversity, or ‘Many in the One’ ” in your Grade 6 textbook).
Recognising these connections encourages us to view this ‘Tapestry of the Past’ not as confined to any one kingdom or ruler, but as a dynamic process that works through interaction and assimilation over time.
Fig. 1. A scene of the death of Buddha.
Fig. 2. Bodhisattva Maitreya.
Fig. 3. Shiva linga being worshipped by Kushdna devotees.
Fig. 4. A Ndga between two Ndgls, with an inscription referring to the eighth year ofKanishka’s reign.
Fig. 5. Kartikeyay the god of war, and Agni, the god of fire.
Fig. 6. Standing Buddha.
Before we move on …
- This period witnessed a dialogue of various cultures that absorbed each other’s influence to create new styles of art, architecture, coinage, etc., with ultimately a dominance of Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature.
- This time was also marked by remarkable developments in trade activities, both internal and external.
Class 7 Social Science Notes
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