Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 14 Back-End Database is part of Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 14 Back-End Database.

Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 14 Back-End Database

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
Write one point of difference between front-end and back-end with one example of each. (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
The front-end is an application, where user interacts directly with an application. The back-end provides an indirect support to the front-end, e.g. client/server.

Question 2.
What do you mean by a database system?
Answer:
A database management system consists of a collection of interrelated data and a collection of programs to access that data. The data describe one particular enterprise.

Question 3.
Explain the main purpose of database system.
Answer:
Database systems are designed to store large bodies of information. The management of data involves both the definition of structure for the storage of information and the provision of mechanism for the manipulation of information.

Question 4.
How does cost of system influence the selection of DBMS?
Answer:
The cost includes the purchase price, cost of operation, maintenance, site license, installation, data migration, data conversion.

Question 5.
Define a term storage manager.
Answer:
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application program and queries.

Question 6.
What is transaction manager?
Answer:
The transaction manager is responsible for ensuring that the database remains in a consistent state despite system failures. The transaction manager also ensures that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

Question 7.
Give some examples of most commonly used database management systems.
Answer:
Most commonly used DBMSs include Oracle, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, PostgreSQL, MySQL and SQLite.

Question 8.
By whom the relational model was first time proposed?
Answer:
The relational model was first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd.

Question 9.
When does data loads into database in DDLC?
Answer:
After creation of the database, the data must be loaded into the database.

Question 10.
Name the first two phases of DDLC.
Answer:
The first two phases of DDLC:

• Requirement Analysis
• Conceptual Database Design

Question 11.
What is the last phase of DDLC?
Answer:
Maintenance

Question 12.
Why study of existing system is required in requirement analysis phase?
Answer:
Study of existing system is required because it is use to identify the data needs and requirements, the data volume, the performance requirements, the security issues, data access restriction, number and types of users, the growth rate of the database.

Question 13.
Which system is used to organise the database?
Answer:
DBMS is stands for Database Management System. It is used to organise the database. It is a collection of software for organising the information in a database.

2 Marks Questions

Question 14.
Describe the term back-end database.
Answer:
A back-end database is a database that is accessed by users indirectly through an external application rather than by application programming stored within the database itself or by low level manipulation of the data.

Question 15.
Write down the purpose of requirement analysis phase of database design?
Answer:
The requirement analysis is the first phase of Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC). At this stage, it is required to find out what is required? What kind of a database is needed for the organisation, what is the volume of the data that must be handled on a day-to-day basis (transaction data), how much data is to be stored in the master files and so on.

Question 16.
What do we do in the conceptual design stage?
Answer:
In the conceptual design stage, data modeling is used to create an abstract database structure that represents the real world scenario.

Question 17.
What is physical database design?
Answer:
In physical database design phase, we identify typical expected workloads that our database must support and further refinement of the database design so that it can meet the expected performance criteria.

Question 18.
Explain the significance of logical database design phase.
Answer:
In the logical design stage, the conceptual design is translated into internal model for the selected DBMS. This includes mapping all objects in the model to the specific constructs used by the selected database software.

Question 19.
What is the importance of schema refinement phase of DDLC?
Answer:
Schema refinement is important because in this phase we analyse the database design produced in logical design phase to identify the potential problems and refines it further.

Question 20.
Describe the Entity-Relationship model.
Answer:
In software engineering, an Entity-Relationship model (ER model for short) is an abstract way to describe a database. It usually starts with a relational database, which stores data in tables. Some of the data in these tables point to data in other tables.

Question 21.
Write some points about the relationship. Name different types of relationships of databases tables.
Answer:
Relationship states the way through which an entity is related with other entity.
There can be following types:

• One-to-one relationship
• One-to-many relationship
• Many-to-many relationship

Question 22.
What do you understand by one-to-one relationship?
Answer:
When one entity is related with one entity through a common attribute then such relation is known as a one-to-one relationship.

Question 23.
Explain any one relationship.
Answer:
When one entity is related with more than one entities through a common attribute or one attribute of an entity is related with more than one attributes of another table then such relation is known as a one-to-many relationship.

Question 24.
What do you understand by many-to-many relationship?
Answer:
When more than one attributes of one entity are related with more than one attributes of another table then such relation is known as a many-to-many relationship.

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CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar समास Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 7 Hindi Grammar समास.

CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar समास

अनेक शब्दों को संक्षिप्त करके नए शब्द बनाने की प्रक्रिया समास कहलाती है; जैसे- राजा का महल-राजमहल।
समास के मुख्यत: छह भेद है

1. तत्पुरुष समास
2. कर्मधारय समास
3. विगु समास
4. अव्ययीभव समास
5. बहुब्रीहि समास तथा
6. द्वंद्व समास

1. तत्पुरुष समास – इस समास में उत्तरपद अर्थात् दूसरा पद प्रधान होता है। इसमें कारक चिह्नों का लोप हो जाता है। कर्ता तथा संबोधन इन दो कारकों के अतिरिक्त अन्य सभी छह कारकों के आधार पर इसमें भेद किए गए हैं।

• कर्म कारक की विभक्ति ‘को’ का लोप
  स्वर्ग प्राप्त
  माखन चोर
  स्वर्ग को प्राप्त
  माखन को चुराने वाला
• करणकारक की विभक्ति से ‘या’ के द्वारा का लोप–
  रसभरी – रस से भरी
  ज्ञानयुक्त – ज्ञान से युक्त
• संप्रदान कारक की विभक्ति के लिए’ का लोप-रसोईघर-रसोई के लिए घर
• अपादान कारक की विभक्ति से का लोप–रोगयुक्त-रोग से युक्त
  धनहीन – धन से हीन
  धर्मभ्रष्ट – धर्म से भ्रष्ट
• संबंध कारक की विभक्ति का/की/के का लोप
  राजपुत्र – राजा का पुत्र
  गंगाजल – गंगा का जल
• अधिकरण कारक की विभक्ति में/पर’ का लोप
  दानवीर – दान में वीर
  लोकप्रिय – लोक में प्रिय

2. कर्मधारय समास – जिस समास के दोनों पदों में विशेषण-विशेष्य या उपमेय-उपमान का संबंध हो, वह कर्मधारय समास कहलाता है। इसमें उत्तर पद प्रधान होता है; जैसे

3. विगु समास – जिस समस्त पद का पूर्वपद संख्यावाची विशेषण हो, उसे विगु समास कहते हैं; जैसे तिरंगा, त्रिकोण, चौराहा, नवरात्र, त्रिभुज।।

4. बहुब्रीहि समास – जिस समास में दोनों ही पद प्रधान न हों, बल्कि कोई अन्यपद भी प्रधान हो, वह बहुब्रीहि समास कहलाता है। जैसे

5. द्वंद्व समास – जिस समास में दोनों ही पद प्रधान हों, वह द्वंद्व समास कहलाता है; जैसे-राजा-रंक, माता-पिता, राम-रहीम अन्न-जल

6. अव्ययीभाव समास – अव्ययीभाव समास में पूर्वपद अव्यय’ होता है तथा वहीं उत्तर पद प्रधान होता है। अव्ययीभाव समास को विग्रह करते समय ‘उत्तरपद’ पहले लिखा जाता है और पूर्वपद बाद में लिखा जाता है। जैसे-आमरण, आजीवन, रातो रात, अनजाने, यथाशीघ्र।

बहुविकल्पी प्रश्न

1. जिस समास का पहला पद गणनीय होता है
(i) द्विगु समास
(ii) द्वं द्व समास
(iii) तत्पुरुष समास
(iv) कर्मधारय समास

2. विशेषण और विशेष्य साथ-साथ होते हैं
(i) अव्ययी भाव
(ii) कर्मधारय समास
(iii) द्वं द्व समास
(iv) बहुब्रीहि समास

3. दो पदों के मध्य कारक चिह्न आता है
(i) द्वंद्व समास
(ii) तत्पुरुष समास
(iii) अव्ययीभाव समास
(iv) कर्मधारय समास

4. निम्न में समास के सही भेदों को चिहनित कीजिए
चल-अचल
(i) तत्पुरुष समास
(ii) अव्ययीभाव समास
(iii) कर्मधारय समास
(iv) बहुब्रीहि समास

5. चतुर्भुज
(i) द्विगु समास
(ii) बहुव्रीहि समास
(iii) तत्पुरुष समास
(iv) अव्ययीभाव समास

6. श्याममेघ
(i) अव्ययीभाव समास
(ii) कर्मधारय समास
(iii) तत्पुरुष समास
(iv) द्विगु समास

उत्तर-
1. (i)
2. (ii)
3. (ii)
4. (iv)
5. (i)
6. (ii)

We hope the given CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar समास will help you. If you have any query regarding CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar समास, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 E-Services and ICT is part of Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 E-Services and ICT.

Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 E-Services and ICT

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
Define e-Learning. Give one popularly used website of e-Learning. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
e-Learning refers to using electronic applications and processes to learn. e-Learning applications include web-based learning, computer-learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. One popular website of e-Learning is w3schools.com.

Question 2.
Define e-Business. Name one popularly used e-Business website. (All India 2014)
Answer:
e-Business means conducting business on Internet. It includes not only sale and purchase of goods through Internet but also servicing customers and collaborating with business partners. One more popularly used e-Business website. Shopping.indiatimes.com

Question 3.
What social impact does e-Governance has on society? (Delhi 2012; All India 2012)
Answer:
Impact of e-Governance on society:

• It improves the efficiency of administration and service delivery.
• It reduced waiting time.

Question 4.
Write two important features of e-Business. Give two most commonly used e-Business Sites. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
Features of e-Business:

• It improves speed of response.
• It reduces cost.

Two most commanly used e-Business sites:

1. www.ebay.in
2. www.dell.in

Question 5.
How is e-Commerce beneficial to businessmen? Write one point. (HOTS; Delhi 2011C)
Answer:
e-Commerce advantage is acquisition of new customers and increased sales.

Question 6.
What is impact of e-Learning sites on students process? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
The impact of e-Learning sites on students process are:

• Students get current updation on these sites, which is not possible through books.
• Family interaction may increase.
• e-Learning sites make students learning more fast with the help of diagram and example.
• Students are more engaged and able to develop latest skills.

Question 7.
Use of e-Governance has its social and economic impacts. Justify. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
Social impacts of e-Governance Many projects have been developed to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in terms of time frame. Due to those applications, processes have become automated and therefore require less time.

Economic impacts of e-Governance Cost reduction, budget savings, growth of tax revenues and improved customer service are some major economic impacts of e-Governance on the society.

Question 8.
How does e-Governance help in reducing corruption? Write two points. (All India 2014; Delhi 2012C, 2011C)
Answer:
e-Governance can help reducing corruption. Two points are as follows:

1. By making some departments online like customs, income tax, sales tax and property tax, so that citizens and businesses can directly communicate with them, resulting in reduced corruption as these departments are perceived to be more corrupt.
2. e-Governance can lead to centralise data, which can be used for improving audits and analysis.

Question 9.
Write three important features of e-Governance. Give URL of one of the commonly used e-Governance portals. (Delhi 2011; All India 2011)
Answer:
Three important features of e-Governance are as follows:

• It has helped to reduce cost of services.
• It ensures that information is easily available to all citizens.
• It has reduced waiting time for any work to be done.

One of the commonly used e-Governance portal is http:Wlndianarmy.nic.in

2 Marks Questions

Question 10.
How is e-Business beneficial to shopkeepers? Write tWO points? (All India 2014C)
Answer:

• It promote the shopkeeper’s product globally,
• It allows 24 x 7 accesses to the shop’s products and services.

Question 11.
Write two advantages of e-Learning sites. (Delhi 2011; All India 2011)
Answer:
Two advantages of e-Learning sites are as follows:

• It eliminates distance problems.
• Opportunity to learn almost anytime.

Question 12.
What do you understand by e-Governance?
Answer:
e-Governance refers to electronic governance.
The word electronic in the term e-Governance implies technology driven governance. e-Governance is the application of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between Govemment-to-Citizens (G2C), Government-to-Business(G2B), Government-to-Govemment (G2G) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government framework.

Question 13.
What do you understand by electronic business?
Answer:
Electronic business, commonly referred to as ‘E-Business’ or ‘e-Business’, or an Internet business, may be defined as the application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in support of all the activities of business.

Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business. Electronic commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses.

Question 14.
Define e-Learning.
Answer:
e-Learning is commonly referred to the intentional use of networked information and communications technology in teaching and learning. A number of other terms are also used to describe this mode of teaching and learning.

Question 15.
Differentiate between e-Governance and e-Government.
Answer:
The difference between e-Governance and e-Government can be described as Government’s foremost job is to focus society on achieving the public interest. Governance is a way of describing the links between government and its broader political, social and administrative environment.

4 Marks Questions

Question 16.
(i) How has popularity of e-Business benefited a common man? Write domain name of one popular e-Business site as an example.
(ii) Give domain names of two most commonly used e-Commerce site. (HOTS; Delhi 2013)
Answer:
(i) Benefits of e-Business:

• The reductions in transaction and other costs.
• Un-shorted supply chain.
• Improved customer service.
• Increased productivity/efficiency.
• Access to international markets. E.g., one e-Business site is www.ebay.in.

(ii) Domain names of two most commonly used e-Commerce sites:

• www.dell.in
• www.shopping.indiatimes.com

Question 17.
Write the challenges of e-Governance with specific focus to India.
Answer:
Lack of Integrated Services Most of the e-Governance services being offered by state or central governments are not integrated. This can mainly be attributed to lack of communication between different departments. So the information that resides with one department has no or very little meaning to some other department of government.

Lack of Key Persons e-Governance projects lack key persons, not only from a technological aspect, but from other aspects as well. Population This is probably the biggest challenge. Apart from being an asset to the country it offers some unique issues.
Establishing Person Identities There is no unique identity of a person in India.

Apart from this, measuring the population, keeping the database of all Indian nationals (& keeping it updated) are some other related challenges. Different Languages A challenge due to the diversity of the country. It enforces need to do governance (up to certain level), in local languages. Ensuring e-Governance in local language is a big task to achieve.

Question 18.
What is the national e-Governance plan?
Answer:
The national e-Governance plan (2003-2007) of Indian government seeks to lay the foundation and provide the impetus for long-term growth of e-Governance within the country. The plan seeks to create the right governance and institutional mechanisms, set-up the core infrastructure and policies and implement a number of mission mode projects at the center, state and integrated service levels to create a citizen-centric and business-centric environment for governance.

In 2005, the World Bank signaled its willingness to increase funding further (if required) for a range of e-Governance initiatives in India as part of the first phase of the country’s National e-Governance Plan (NeGP).

Question 19.
What are the main focus point of National e-Governance plan?
Answer:
The main focus of National e-Governance Plan is on following points:

• Adequate weightage must be given for quality and speed of implementation in procurement procedures for IT services.
• Incorporation of a suitable system of incentivisation of states to encourage adoption.
• The trend of delivery of services through common service centres should be encouraged and promoted.
• Wherever possible, services should be outsourced.
• The full potential for private sector investment should be exploited.
• Connectivity should be extended up to block level through NICNET/SWANs.
• NeGP also envisages significant investments in areas such as government process re-engineering, capacity building, training, assessment and awareness.

The plan is to be executed over a four-year period. An apex committee under the Cabin Secretary is already in place for providing the strategic direction and management oversight.

We hope the Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 E-Services and ICT help you. If you have any query regarding Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 E-Services and ICT, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar उपसर्ग एवं प्रत्यय Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 7 Hindi Grammar उपसर्ग एवं प्रत्यय.

CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar उपसर्ग एवं प्रत्यय

‘उपसर्ग’ शब्द उप’ एवं ‘सर्ग’ शब्द के मेल से बना है, जिसमें ‘सर्ग’ मूल शब्द है, जिसको अर्थ होता है- ग्रंथ को अध्याय, जोड़ना, रचना, निर्माण करना आदि। यानी मूल शब्दों के पहले अथवा आगे जो शब्दांश लगाए जाते हैं, वे उपसर्ग कहलाते हैं।
इस प्रकार मूल शब्द से पहले जुड़कर जो शब्दांश उस शब्द के अर्थ में परिवर्तन ला देते हैं, वे उपसर्ग कहलाते हैं।

उपसर्ग के भेद
हिंदी भाषा में चार प्रकार के उपसर्ग होते हैं।

• संस्कृत के उपसर्ग
• हिंदी के उपसर्ग
• उर्दू के उपसर्ग
• संस्कृत के अव्यय

संस्कृत के उपसर्ग

हिंदी के उपसर्ग

उर्दू के उपसर्ग और शब्द

उपसर्ग की तरह प्रयोग किए जाने वाले संस्कृत के अव्यय

अधः नीचे – अध:पतन – अधोगति, अधोमुख अधोमार्ग
आन – मिलान, उठान, उड़ान, लगान, ढलान
अक्कड़ – भुलक्कड़, घुमक्कड़, कुदक्कड़
स – सहित – सपरिवार, सचित्र, सप्रसंग, सजल, सफल
ई – रेती, कटारी, हँसी, बोली, घाटी, डोरी

प्रत्यय – जो शब्दांश किसी शब्द के अंत में जुड़कर उसके अर्थ में विशेषता या परिवर्तन लाते हैं, उन्हें प्रत्यय कहते हैं।

उपसर्ग और प्रत्यय में समानता
ये दोनों ही शब्दों के अंश होते हैं, पूर्ण शब्द नहीं। इनका अकेले प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता। दोनों के प्रयोग से ही शब्द के अर्थ में अंतर आता है। एक शब्द में ये दोनों भी जोड़े जा सकते हैं, जैसे

उपसर्ग और प्रत्यय में अंतर
उपसर्ग शब्द के पूर्व जुड़ते हैं तथा प्रत्यय शब्द के अंत में; जैसे-
प्रति (उपसर्ग) दिन (शब्द) प्रतिदिन
रख (शब्द) + वाला प्रत्यय रखवाला

बहुविकल्पी प्रश्न

नीचे दिए गए शब्दों के लिए प्रयुक्त उपसर्गों के सही विकल्प को चिह्नित कीजिए।
1. दुर्बल
(i) दुर
(ii) दु
(iii) दुर्ग
(iv) ति

2. आजीवन
(i) अ
(ii) आ
(iii) आज
(iv) आजी

3. प्रतिक्षण
(i) प्र.
(ii) प्रति
(iii) प्रत
(iv) कूल

4. बेसहरा
(i) बेस
(ii) ब
(iii) बे
(iv) समझ

5. दुर्गति
(i) दु
(ii) दुर
(iii) दुर्द
(iv) दशा

6. प्रतिक्षण
(i) प्र
(ii) प्रति
(iii) क
(iv) कूल

7. कमजोर
(i) अक्ल
(ii) कम्
(iii) क
(iv) कम

8. सुराज्य
(i) स
(ii) सु
(iii) सुरा
(iv) सुरा

उत्तर-
1. (i)
2. (ii)
3. (ii)
4. (iii)
5. (ii)
6. (ii)
7. (iv)

We hope the given CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar उपसर्ग एवं प्रत्यय will help you. If you have any query regarding CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar उपसर्ग एवं प्रत्यय, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals Pdf free download is part of Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals.

CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals

Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Rapid application development refers to describe a method of developing software through the use of pre-programmed tools and pre-designed wizards. These tools or controls can be used in an application by simply dropping them on a designer screen to design the interface of the application. NetBeans IDE provides an environment for developing applications for Windows platform.

Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
An Integrated Development Environment (also known as integrated design environment, integrated debugging environment or interactive development environment) is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development.
An IDE normally consists of:

1. a source code editor
2. a compiler and/or an interpreter
3. build automation tools
4. a debugger.

Sometimes a version control system and various tools are integrated to simplify the construction of a GUI. Many modern IDEs also have a class browser, an object browser and a class hierarchy diagram, for use with object-oriented software development.

NetBeans IDE
NetBeans IDE can be used to create Java applications easily. It has an efficient GUI builder.
NetBeans offers many features for application development, some are as follows:

• Drag-drop GUI creation
• Advanced source code editor
• Web-services
• Excellent debugging
• Wizards, code generation and management tools and many more.

Different components of NetBeans IDE are as follows:

1. Titlebar The titlebar is on the top of the window, containing the name of application.
2. Menubar Below the titlebar, there is a menubar. It contains many options, i.e. pull down menu. These options can be used to perform various tasks.
3. Toolbar Toolbar contains many small icons for performing various tasks.
4. GUI Builder It is also known as Design Area or Design Space. It is an area to place components and construct GUI application visually. There are two types of views of the GUI builder, the Design View and the Source View. In Design View, you can see the user interface of your application while in Source View, you can add/edit the code for your application. We can switch over from one view to another by simply clicking on the source and design tabs directly above
   the Design Area.
   
5. Palette Palette contains controls or components used to create GUI applications.
6. Inspector Window This window is used to display a hierarchy of all the components or controls placed on the current form.
7. Properties Window Using this window, we can make changes in the properties of currently selected control on the form.
8. Code Editor Window It is the area where we write code for our Java applications. This window is displayed when we click on the source tab.

Components

Components are also known as Widgets. These are the basic interface elements. User interacts with JLabel, JButton, JTextField, etc. Components are placed on a container (like the JFrame).
There are two types of controls:

1. Parent or Container Controls They act as a background for other controls, e.g. Frame.When we delete a parent control, all its child controls also get deleted. When we move a parent control, all its child controls also move along with it.
2. Child Controls Controls placed inside a container control are called child controls, e.g. TextField, Label, Button, etc.

Basic Graphical Controls of Swing
Some of the commonly used controls of swing are as follows:

1. JFrame The JFrame is used to display a separate window with its own title bar.
2. JLabel The JLabel is used to display uneditable text. It means the user cannot change the information.
3. JTextField The JTextField is used to display a text box. In this text box, the user can input or edit the data. JPasswordField does not directly display its content. Infact it uses a single character (usually an ASTERISK) to represent each character that it contains, so that it is possible to see how many characters have been typed, but not what they are. As its name suggests, JPasswordField is intended to be used as a simple way to accept a users password. JPasswordField is derived from JTextField.
4. JButton The JButton displays a push button. The push button is used to generate the associated action event.
5. JCheckBox The JCheckBox is used to display a check box. The check box is used to allow the user to select multiple choices out of given choices. When the user selects a particular choice, a ‘✓’ is shown in front of it.
6. JList The JList displays a list for the application. We can select multiple elements from this list.
7. JComboBox The JComboBox provides a drop-down list of items. We can select an item from this list. Also, we can add a new item in the list. Infact, the combo box is a combination of a list and a text field.
8. JPanel The JPanel is used to organise the components in a GUI application. It is a supporting container, which cannot be displayed but can be added to another container.
9. JRadioButton The JRadioButton provides the radio buttons for the application. During the execution of a program, we can set these radio buttons either ON or OFF.

Note The area on the frame, where GUI components are placed is called content Pane.

Java Character Set
Character set refers to a set of valid characters that the language can recognise. In Java, Unicode characters are used.

Token
The token refers to the smallest unit of a program. In Java language, many tokens are used. These are keywords, identifiers, literals, punctuators and operators.
(i) Keywords The keywords are the reserved words defined in the language compiler. These reserved words are used for special purpose and cannot be used for any other purpose such as an identifier name.
Commonly used keywords are as follows:

(ii) Identifiers The identifiers are used for naming different items of the programs such as variables, characters, classes, functions, arrays, etc.
The identifiers are subject to following rules:

1. The identifier cannot be a reserved word.
2. The identifier cannot start with a digit.
3. It must start with an alphabet, dollar sign or an underscore.
4. It can contain alphabets, digits, underscore and dollar sign.
5. There is no limit on the length of the identifier.

Note Java is a case sensitive language and we can use both uppercase and lowercase characters for naming an identifier. Here, a name written in uppercase is different from the same name written in lowercase (e.g. a and A are two different identifiers).

(iii) Literals The literals or the constants are those items, whose values cannot be changed during the execution of the program. There are number of literals used in a Java program. These are integer literals, floating literals, boolean literals, character literals, string literals and null literals.

(a) Integer Literals The integer literals are the whole numbers without any fractional part. We can enter the integers as decimal numbers (base 10), octal numbers (base 8) and hexadecimal numbers (base 16).
The decimal number is entered as a number which begins with a non-zero digit (e.g. 35), for an octal number we have to enter the number that begins with a zero (e.g. 026) and a hexadecimal number must start with Ox or OX. (e.g. 0x2B).
(b) Floating Literals The floating literals or the real numbers are those numbers which have fractional part. The numbers can be written either in fractional form or in exponential form. e.g. 35.45. To write 5.3 x 103, we have to write 5.3E03 or 5.3e03.
(c) Boolean Literals The boolean type literals can have a boolean type value i.e. either true or false.
(d) Character Literals The character literal is one character enclosed in a single quotes, e.g. ‘a’.
(e) String Literals When multiple characters are entered such as a name of a person or a place. The string literals are enclosed by double quotes, e.g. “xyz”.
(f) Null Literals The null type literal has only null value. It is formed by a literal null.

(iv) Punctuators (or Separators) A punctuator is a token that has syntactic and semantic meaning to the compiler, but the exact significance depends on the context. A punctuator can also be a token that is used in the syntax of the preprocessor.

(v) Operators There are several kinds of operators. Operators are used in expression to describe operations involving one or more operands. In the expression a + b, ‘+’ is an operator involving two operands (a and b).

Data Types
The data types refer to identify the type of data and the associated operations of handling it. Broadly, the data types can be categorised into two categories as:
1. Primitive or Intrinsic Data Types The primitive data types are the basic data types of the Java language.
The primitive data type can be divided into following four categories:
(i) Numeric Integral Primitive Types
(a) byte The byte type occupies 1 byte of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of —128 to + 127.
(b) short The short type occupies 2 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of—32768 to + 32767.
(c) int The integer type occupies 4 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of — 2147483648 to + 2147483647.
(d) long The long type occupies 8 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of – 9223372036854775808 to + 9223372036854775807.

(ii) Fractional Primitive Types
(a) float The float type occupies 4 bytes of memory space. It can hold a single
precision floating number in range of 1.401298464324817E—45 to 3.402823476638528860E+38 (1.4E-45 to 3.4E+38). ‘
(b) double The double type occupies 8 bytes of memory space. It can hold a double precision floating number in range of ± 4.9 E-324 to ± 1.798E+308.

(iii) Character Primitive Type
char The char type is used to hold a single character. In Java Unicode, encoding system is used for encoding the characters. It can hold a character variable range from 0 to 65535.

(iv) Boolean Primitive Type
boolean The boolean type is used to represent a boolean value, i.e. true or false. The size of this datatype is not precisely defined.

2. Non-Primitive or Reference Data Types These data types are constructed from primitive data types. Among the reference data type, there are array, class and interface.
These data types are used to store the memory address of an object:
(i) Array It is a collection of many elements but of similar data type. It provides us facility of keeping together more than one variable in memory.
General form

data_type arrayname[];

Here, data_type determines the type of values array will store. It can store any valid data type values but all values must be of same data type, arrayname is the name of array and [ ] symbolises that this is an array.

e.g. int role[];

(ii) Class It is a way to bind data and functions associated with it together.
General form
class class_name

{
//variable declaration 
//method declaration
};

(iii) Interface These are just like class. They specify what all methods they will contain but do not give method definition.

Variables
A variable refers to an item, whose value varies or changes. Infact, it is a named location in the memory, which can hold a data value of a particular data type.
To declare a variable following format is used:

data_type variablename;
e.g. int age;float salary; etc.

We can also initialise the variable at the time of declaration:

e.g. int age = 10;

Constant
To make a variable as a constant, final keyword is used. Such value cannot be changed during the execution of the program.

e.g. final float PI = 3.14;

Text Interaction Methods in Java
For text interaction in Java usually following types of methods are used:
(i) getText() Method get text from a GUI component.
The getText( ) method is used to return the text stored in the text based GUI component such as a text box. e.g. if the variable name is stuName, then to obtain text from the stuName text field. We need to type following statement:
String Name = stuName.getTextl );

(ii) setText() Method set text into a GUI component.
A setText() method is used to store or change text in a text field, e.g. to change a text in a text field named stuName we need to write: stuName.setText(“Kritika”):

(iii) parse() Method Converts String to Numbers from a GUI component.
The parse() method is used to convert a string into different numeric types. In Java, there are different types of parse methods are used.
Some of them are as follows:
(a) Byte.parseByte(String s) Used to convert a String s into a byte type value.
(b) Short.parseShort(String s) Used to convert a String s into a short type value.
(c) Integer.parseInt(String s) Used to convert a String s into an int type value.
(d) Long.parseLong(String s) Used to convert a String s into a long type value.
(e) Float.parseFloat(String s) Used to convert a String s into a float type value.
(f) Double.parseDouble(String s) Used to convert a String s into a double type value.

(iv) JOptionPane.showMessageDialog() Method display message in a dialog box.
To produce a basic dialog box, we can use this method. It will display a dialog box containing the desired information with OK button. To close the dialog box, we need to click at the OK button.
In order to use this method, we have to follow these steps:

(a) In the source editor, we need to type the following statement at the top most position

import javax.swing.JOptionPane;

(b) Then do display the desired message we need to specify the desired text as per following syntax

JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(Null,"This is a message”):

Non-GUI Output Methods
For displaying an output on console window (or terminal window) in a Java program, we can use either of two methods i.e. System.out.print() or System.out.println().

1. System.out.print( ) This method displays the text and keeps the cursor in the same line.

e.g. System.out.print(“There is an output on console window”);

2. System.out.println() This method displays the text and then moves the cursor to the next line.

e.g. System.out.println("There is an output on console window”);

Operators in Java
An operator on one or more variables and perform on the all tasks related to programming language. It consists of words or symbols. In Java language, many operators are used. We can categorise these operators as follows:

1. Arithmetic Operators In Java language, following five arithmetic operators are used:

2. Increment/Decrement Operators There are two forms of increment operator (+ +) and decrement operator (- -) as follows:
(i) Prefix Form In prefix form, the operator + + or is used before the operand. In
such form, first there will be increment or decrement in the value of the variable and then it is used. This form follows the change-then-use rule:
e.g.

int a = 5, b;
b = ++a;

Here, the value of b will be 6, also the last value of a will be 6.

(ii) Postfix Form In postfix form, the operator + + or – – is used after the operand . In the postfix form, first the value of the variable is used, then there will be increment or decrement in the value of the variable. This form follows the use-then-change rule:
e.g.

int a = 5, b;
b = a++;

Here, the value of b will be 5 and the last value of a will be 6.

3. Logical Operators The logical operators are used to make a decision on two conditions. Logical operators are mainly used to control program flow. There are three logical operators used in Java.
These are as follows:

• AND Operator (&&) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if both of the given conditions are true.
• OR Operator (||) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if either of the given conditions or both of the conditions are true.
• NOT Operator (!) The NOT operator is an unary operator. It negates the given condition.

4. Bitwise Operators The Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. These operators manipulate the values of data at bit level. These operators are generally used for testing and shifting of bits.
These are as follows:

• Bitwise AND (&) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if both of the conditions are true bitwise.
• Bitwise OR (|) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if either of the given condition or both of the conditions are true bitwise.
• Bitwise Exclusive OR (ˆ) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if one of the given conditions is true and other is false.

5. Relational Operators The relational operators are used to compare two operands and determines the relationship between them. Most of relational operators are used in “if’’statement and inside “loop” statement in order to check truthness or falseness of condition. The relational operators are binary operators and returns boolean value. The relational operators and their uses are given below:

6. Assignment Operators For assigning a value to a variable, the assignment operator is used. In Java, “=’ is the assignment operator, e.g. to assign 5 to a, we use a = 5.

Shorthand Assignment Operators
In Java language, five shorthand assignment operators are used, these are +=, – =, *=, /= and %=.
e.g.

x = x + 5 can be written as x += 5;
x = x - 5 can be written as x -= 5;
x = x * 5 can be written as x *= 5;
x = x / 5 can be written as x /= 5;
x = x % 5 can be written as x %= 5;

7. Conditional Operator It is used when one condition and two expressions are given.
Syntax

When the value of condition is true then first expression will be returned. If the condition is false, then second expression will be returned whichever value is returned is depend on the condition.

Operators can also be divided into three parts, on the basis of number of operands:

1.  Unary Operator An unary operator requires only one operand. Example of unary operators are unary + , unary -, + + and – -. These operator performs task only on a single operand.
2. Binary Operator A binary operator requires two operands. Examples of binary operators are + and %.
3. Ternary Operator A ternary operator requires three operands. Example of ternary operator is ? : (the conditional operator).

Type Conversion
When different types of constants and variables are mixed in an expression, then they are converted into the same data type, this conversion of data type is known as type conversion. The conversions in Java language are of two types namely implicit type conversion and explicit type conversion.
1. Implicit Type Conversion
The implicit type conversion is performed by the compiler itself. There is no intervention of the programmer in this regard. This is done to avoid the data loss in case when multiple types of values are used in an expression.
Java compiler converts all operands up to the type of largest operand, which is known as Type Promotion. The implicit type conversion, wherein datatypes are promoted, is known as coercion.

e.g. if one of the operand is int and another one is double, then the int is automatically converted into double. Similarly, if one of the data type is float and the other one is double, then the float type will automatically converted into double.

2. Explicit Type Conversion
Whenever a programmer wants to assign a data type of higher size to a data type of lower size, he has to do it manually. Because compiler cannot do it automatically. This type of type conversion is known as explicit type conversion.
The type casting or explicit type conversion is performed in Java as follows:
Syntax 

(type) expression

e.g. 

(float) (a / b);

Constructs of Java Program
In a Java program, the specified statements can be executed either sequentially, selectively or repeatedly.

1. Sequence Normally, the statements of a Java program are executed sequentially, i.e. in the same order as they are specified in a program.
2. Selection When we need to execute the program selectively, we have to use a conditional statement.
3. Iteration When there is a need for executing certain statements repeatedly, we
   have to use a loop structure or iteration statement. .

1. Selection Statements
The selection statements are used to execute a statement or a group of statements depending upon a given condition.
There are following selection statements used in Java language:
(i) The if statement The if statement tests a given condition, if the given condition evaluates to true, the associated statements will be executed otherwise the control of the program will be transferred to the next statement.
The syntax of if statement is as follows:

if(condition) 
statements; 
e.g. if(i==5)
System.out.println(“Five”);

(ii) The if-else statement The if-else statement is an extension of the if statement. In this format, the given test condition will be evaluated, if the condition is evaluated to true one set of statements will be executed otherwise another set of statements will be executed.
The syntax of if-else statement is as follows:

if(condition) 
statement 1; 
else
statement 2;

(iii) Nested if statement When an if statement is inside another if or if-else statement, then it is called Nested if statement.
The general syntax of this statement is as follows:
(a)

 if(condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
statement 1:
else
statement 2;
}
else
statement 3;

(b)

 if(condition 1)
statement 1;
else
{
if(condition 2)
statement 2;
else
statement 3;
}

(c)

 if (condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
statement 1;
else
statement 2;
}
else
{
if(condition 3)
statement 3;
else
statement 4;
}

(iv) The if-else-if ladder form In this kind of statement, a number of logical conditions are checked for executing various statements. This is based upon the sequence of nested if and is often called the if-else-if ladder.
General form

if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else
statement;

(v) The switch statement The switch statement is a multiple branch selection statement. This statement tests a given condition. On the basis of the evaluation of test condition against a list of integers or character constants, the associated statements will be executed. The switch statements searches for a specified match, when a match is found it will execute the statements specified thereafter till the end of the structure or until the break statement is found. The fall of control to the following cases of matching case, is called Fall-Through. We can use an optional default with the switch statement. It will be executed, when no match is found.
The general syntax of switch is as follows:

switch(expression)
{
case value1:
statement 1;
break;
case value2:
statement 2;
break;
case value3:
statement 3;
break;
default:
statement;
}

Note The expression should be in integer, character and byte type.

2. Looping or Iteration Statements
The looping statements are used to execute a set of programs repeatedly until a given condition is found true. In Java language, four types of looping statements are used. These are for loop, while loop, do-while loop and nested loop.
(i) The for loop The for loop is used to execute a part of program repeatedly upto a fixed number of times. It is also known as Entry Controlled Loop.
The general form of the for loop is as follows:

for(initialisation; condition; increment or decrement) 
statements;
e.g. 
for(int i=l;i<=5;i++)
System.out.println(i);

It will display the following output:

1
2
3
4
5

(ii) The while loop It is also known as Entry Controlled Loop. The while loop is a conditional loop. It executes a part of the program repeatedly until the given condition is satisfied.
The general form of the while loop is as follows:

while(condition) 
statements;
e.g. int i=l;
while i<=5)
{
System.out.println(i);
i +=2;
}

On execution of above statements, the following output will be displayed:

1
3
5

(iii) The do-while loop It is also known as Exit Controlled Loop. The do-while loop is similar to while loop, but it is an exit controlled loop. Here, the test condition is given at the end. It means the do-while loop will be executed once even if the test condition is found false at the starting of the loop.
The general syntax of the do-while loop is as follows:

do
{
statements;
}while(condition);
e.g. int i=2;
do
{
System.out.println(i);
i +=2;
} whi1e(i<=10);

It will display the following output:

2
4
6
8
10

(iv) The nested loop When one loop is specified inside another loop, it is called nested loop.
e.g.

for(int i=l;i<=5;i++)
{
for(int j=l;j<=i;j++)
System.out.print(j + “ ”);
System.out.println();
}

This code will display following output:

1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

3. Jump Statements
In jump statement, the control of a program transfers unconditionally within a function.
In Java, following jump statements are used:
(i) The break statement The break statement can be used with for loop, while loop, do-while loop or switch statement. The break statement terminates the loop and moves the control to the next statement after the loop structure. The remaining statements of the loop will not be executed.
The general structures of break statement are as follows:
(a)

while(condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
break;
:
}

(b) for(initialisation; condition 1; increment or decrement)

{
:
if(condition 2)

break;
:
}

(c)

do
{
:
if(condition 1)
break;
:
} while (condition 2);
e.g. i nt i=l;
while(i<=10)
{
if (i—5)
break;
System.out.println (i);
i++;
}

This code will display following output:

1
2
3
4

because as the value of i becomes 5, the break statement will be executed which will move the control to the ending of the loop and remaining statements in the loop will not be executed thereafter.

(ii) The continue statement The continue is a jump statement. It will cause to skip the remaining statements in the loop and moves the control to the beginning of the loop for next iteration.
The general structures of continue statement are as follows:
(a)

while(condition 1)
{
:
if(condition 2)
continue;
:
}

(b)

 for(initialisation; condition 1; increment or decrement)
{
:
if(condition 2)
continue;
}

(c)

do
{
:
if(condition 1)
continue;
:
} while(condition 2);
e.g.for(int i=l;i<=10;i++)
{
if(i>=4 && i<=8)
continue;
System.out.println(i);
}

The above code will present following output:

1
2
3
9
10

because when the value of i is 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, the continue statement will be executed which will move the control to the beginning of the loop and skipping the remaining statements.

(iii) Return Statement This statement is used to explicitly return from a method. It causes program control to transfer back to the caller of the method. The return statement immediately terminate the method in which it is executed.
Syntax       return (Expression);

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals Pdf free download will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar वाक्य Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 7 Hindi Grammar वाक्य.

CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar वाक्य

शब्दों का ऐसा समूह जिसका अर्थ व अभिप्राय स्पष्ट हो जाए, उसे वाक्य कहते हैं।

वाक्य के अंग
एक वाक्य में साधारण रूप से कर्ता और क्रिया का होना आवश्यक है। इस आधार पर वाक्य के दो मुख्य अंग होते हैं

• उद्देश्य
• विधेय।

उद्देश्य या विधेय को मिलाकर ही एक वाक्य पूरा होता है।
उद्देश्य – जिसके बारे में कोई बात कही जाए, उसे उद्देश्य कहते हैं; जैसे

• रजत घर गया
• आयुष पढ़ रहा है।

यहाँ रजत तथा आयुष के बारे में बात कही जा रही है। अतः ये उद्देश्य हैं। उद्देश्य में कर्ता तथा कर्ता से संबंधित प्रयुक्त किए। गए शब्द आते हैं।

विधेय – उद्देश्य के बारे में जो कुछ कहा जाए, उसे विधेय कहा जाता है; जैसे

• नेहा नाच रही है।
• माँ खाना पका रही है।
  यहाँ रेखांकित अंश विधेय है।

वाक्य के भेद
रचना के आधार पर वाक्य के तीन भेद होते हैं

• सरल वाक्य
• संयुक्त वाक्य
• मिश्रित वाक्य

(i) सरल वाक्य – जिस वाक्य में उद्देश्य तथा एक विधेय हो, उसे सरल वाक्य कहते हैं।
जैसे-

• अंशु पढ़ रही है।
• माँ ने मिठाई बनाई।

(ii) संयुक्त वाक्य – जब एक से अधिक सरल वाक्य समुच्चयबोधकों द्वारा आपस में जुड़े होते हैं, तब वे संयुक्त वाक्य कहलाते हैं; जैसे-

• नानी घर आई और कहानी सुनाई।
• नेहा गा रही है और निशा नाच रही है।
  उपर्युक्त वाक्यों में दो सरल वाक्य तथा और से जुड़े हुए हैं। समुच्चयबोधक हटाने पर ये स्वतंत्र वाक्य बन जाते हैं।

(iii) मिश्र वाक्य – जिस वाक्य में एक प्रधान उपवाक्य हो तथा दूसरा आश्रित उपवाक्य, उसे मिश्र वाक्य कहते हैं। यहाँ प्रधान उपवाक्य में कर्ता और क्रिया होने तथा वाक्य पूरा होने पर भी अर्थ प्रकट नहीं होता है; जैसे-

• कोमल विद्यालय नहीं जा सकी, क्योंकि वह बीमार है।
• पिता ने समझाया कि सदा सत्य बोलना चाहिए।

अर्थ के आधार पर वाक्य के भेद
अर्थ के आधार पर वाक्य के आठ भेद होते हैं-

1. विधानवाचक वाक्य – जिन वाक्यों में किसी बात या कार्य के होने या करने का बोध होता है; जैसे-

• आकाश में तारे चमक रहे हैं।
• पक्षी घोंसलों में लौट आए।

2. निषेधवाचक वाक्य – जिन वाक्यों में किसी बात या कार्य के न होने या न करने का भाव प्रकट होता है, उसे निषेधवाचक वाक्य कहते हैं; जैसे-

• उसने खाना नहीं खाया।
• सड़क पर मत भागो।

3. प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य – जिस वाक्य का प्रयोग प्रश्न पूछने के लिए किया जाए, उसे प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य कहते हैं; जैसे-आप कहाँ रहते हैं।

4. आज्ञावाचक वाक्य – इसमें किसी बात या काम के लिए आज्ञा, प्रार्थना अथवा उपदेश का भाव रहता है; जैसे-

• सदा सच बोलो।
• सदा दूसरों की मदद करो।

5. विस्मयादिबोधक वाक्य – जिस वाक्य में हर्ष, विस्मय, घृणा या शोक का भाव प्रकट होता है, उसे विस्मयादिबोधक वाक्य कहते हैं, जैसे-

• अहा! कैसा मीठा फल है।
• अरे! तुम आ गए।
• हाय! बेचारा गिर गया।

6. इच्छावाचक वाक्य – जिस वाक्य में किसी-आशीर्वाद, कामना, इच्छा आदि का बोध हो, उसे इच्छावाचक वाक्य कहते हैं; जैसे-

• ईश्वर तुम्हें दीर्घायु प्रदान करें।
• भारत प्रगति करता रहे।

7. संदेहवाचक वाक्य – जिस वाक्य द्वारा किसी बात या काम के होने में संदेह का बोध हो, वह संदेहवाचक वाक्य कहलाता है; जैसे-

• तुमने उन्हें आते देखा होगा।
• वह चला गया होगा।

8. संकेतवाचक वाक्य-जिस वाक्य में एक कार्य का होना या न होना दूसरे वाक्य पर निर्भर करे, उसे संकेतवाचक वाक्य कहते है|

उपवाक्य
वाक्य की सबसे छोटी इकाई उपवाक्य है। ये अपने आप में पूर्ण नहीं होते। दूसरे (प्रधान) उपवाक्य का आश्रय लेकर ही पूर्ण अर्थ देते हैं; जैसे

1. संज्ञा उपवाक्य-मैंने देखा कि वह पढ़ रहा है।
2. विशेषण उपवाक्य-मैं उसे जानती हूँ जो दौड़ में जीती थी।
3. क्रियाविशेषण-मैं वहीं रहती हूँ जहाँ तुम रहते हो।

बहुविकल्पी प्रश्न

(क) वाक्य कहलाता है
(i) शब्द समूह
(ii) शब्द समूह जिसका अर्थ स्पष्ट हो
(iii) वर्ण समूह
(iv) इनमें कोई नहीं।

(ख) ‘हमें निंदा से बचना चाहिए’ इस वाक्य में विधेय है
(i) हमें
(ii) निंदा से
(iii) हमें निंदा से
(iv) निंदा से बचना चाहिए।

(ग) वाक्य के कितने अंग होते हैं?
(i) दो
(ii) तीन
(iii) चार
(iv) पाँच।

(घ) अर्थ के आधार पर वाक्य के कितने भेद हैं?
(i) छह
(ii) सात
(iii) आठ
(iv) पाँच।

(ङ) सूर्य पूर्व दिशा से निकलता है। इस वाक्य में विधेय है
(i) सूर्य
(ii) निकलता है।
(iii) पूर्व दिशा से
(iv) पूर्व दिशा से

(च) “राधा नाच रही है। इस वाक्य में उद्देश्य है
(i) नाच
(ii) राधा
(iii) रही है।
(iv) इनमें से कोई नहीं

(छ) आकाश विद्यालय जाता है। अर्थ के आधार पर वाक्य भेद बताइए।
(i) विधानवाचक
(ii) संयुक्त वाक्य
(iii) मिश्रित वाक्य
(iv) इनमें से कोई नहीं

(ज) “परिश्रम करोगे तो पास हो जाओगे’ – अर्थ के आधार पर वाक्य भेद बताइए
(i) इच्छावाचक
(ii) संकेतवाचक
(iii) आज्ञावाचक
(iv) विस्मयवाचक

उत्तर-
(क) (ii)
(ख) (iv)
(ग) (i)
(घ) (iii)
(ङ) (ii)
(च) (ii)
(छ) (i)
(ज) (ii)

We hope the given CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar वाक्य will help you. If you have any query regarding CBSE Class 7 Hindi Grammar वाक्य, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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NCERT English Workbook Class 9 Solutions Unit 8 Prepositions are part of English Workbook Class 9 Solutions. Here we have given CBSE Class 9 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Prepositions.

CBSE Class 9 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Prepositions

Question 1.
Read the following passage on New Zealand.

New Zealand is a Mecca for nature lovers. Throughout most of New Zealand’s geological history, it was a bird’s paradise. The islands were once part of the southern super – continent Gondwana from which they broke off around 80 million years ago before mammals had evolved and spread.
(courtesy : Terra Green Sept 2008 issue 06)

Answer:
Prepositions.

Question 2.
Identify the functions of the prepositions in each of these sentences.

1. George Washington served as the Commander-in-Chief during the American Revolutionary War.
2. The assassin shot the leader with a gun.
3. Pratap bequeathed his property to charity.
4. Manoj was awarded a certificate for his good conduct.
5. The roof is covered with fire-proof sheets.

Answers:

1. During shows the time here of the American Revolutionary War when George Washington was the Commander-in-Chief. Hence it serves the function of time. (Time)
2. With shows the function of the gun with ‘shooting’ here. (Means)
3. To shows the function of‘bequeathing’ the property to the receiver. Here it is ‘charity’. (Agent)
4. For shows the relationship of‘good conduct’ with the ‘awarding of the certificate’ here. (Reason)
5. With here shows the relationship of fire-proof sheets with the roof covering. (Means)

Question 3.
Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.

(a) The magician made the girl disappear ________ my own eyes.
(b) He climbed ________ the ladder.
(c) There is a super market ________ our house.
(d) The train was late ________ 3 hrs.

Answers:

(a) before
(b) up
(c) near/in front of
(d) by

Question 4.
Group the prepositions in the box below to indicate their use as prepositions of place (P), movement (M) or time (T). There may be more than one category for each.

between ________
along ________
since ________
up ________
among ________
in front of ________
after ________

past ________
on ________
behind ________
round ________
for ________
across ________
through ________

before ________
until ________
beside ________
out of ________
at ________
under ________
during ________

Answers:

Question 5.
A student from a lower class asks you to help her illustrate for her class, the use of different prepositions.
In groups of four, choose one of the following lists of prepositions and draw simple pictures to illustrate their meaning.

Answers:
A. Place – deniting Prepositions

(a) In
Place : The teacher is in the class.
Time : The teacher will be back in five minutes.

(b) Behind
Place : He sat behind nie.
Time : The train is running behind time.

(c) Beside
Place : He stood beside me.
Movement : He was running beside me.

(d) Above
Place : He lives in the flat. just above ours.
Movement : He was hanging a picture above the mantelpiece.

B. Movement – denoting Prepositions

(a) Through
Movement : We were passing through a forest at that time.
Place : We marched through the town.

(b) Along
Movemnent : The trees seem to be running along the train when it runs fast.
Place : There are trees along the river.

(c) Up
Movement : She climbed up the ladder.
Place : She lives up the Park Street.

(d) Down
Movement : Neeta went down the ladder.
Place : Neeta lives down this street.

(e) Round
Movement : He moved round the tree.
Place : He toured round the world.

Prepositions of location

Question 6.
Picture Dictation

Work in pairs – Student A and Student B. Student A only – turn to Page 117. Keep the picture secret from Student B. Describe exactly what you see to Student B, who must draw the picture from the information given. At the end, compare the two pictures. Draw your picture in the box below.

Answer:
… On the hill to the left side, there is seen a temple. An aeroplane is seen flying in the sky over this temple. The sun is seen rising over the hill to the right side. Behind the temple some trees are seen growing on the hill. Palm trees are growing to the right side of the small house. Some trees are seen behind the house in the west side of the house. There is a fence round the house. It is seen forming a kind of circle. There is a passage in front of the house which leads to its main entrance.

Note : Students shall see that different prepositions used in the paragraph above show the connection between the nouns. These prepositions are given in italics.

Question 7.
This description is taken from a well-known film. Can you guess which one?

A man in a red cape and blue tights is flying over a city. On his chest is the letter S. Below him a large crowd is pointing up at him.

Imagine a scene from a play, film or TV show you have seen.

Describe (a) where things and people are, and (b) any movement. Follow the example.

Show your description to your partner. Guess each other’s play or film.
Answer:
A young man in light blue shirt and blue faded jeans is riding on a motorcycle. He has a golden watch on his wrist and a golden chain round his neck. He drives speedily and is singing a song. It is a busy road as many cars, buses and scooters ply on it. The passengers stand to see him. Some are pointing up at him. He takes a turn at the crossing and stops. A hearse goes by in front of him. He becomes tense. A sudden change comes over his face. He looks towards the sky and raises his hand. He moves on but the joyful expression in the begin¬ning has disappeared. It has changed into a sad and sullen one. (A scene from the film Mukaddar Ka Shikander)

Question 8.
Study the map and the key given below carefully, and complete the sentence that follow.

Key

1. Lalnagar
2. Sarkor
3. Timpur
4. Rampur (Capital)
5. Marwah
6. Chickoor
7. Strange Lake
8. Neverest Hills
9. Nafran
10. Lakshrnanpur

Answers:

1. Lakshman Pur – is situated half-way along the west coast of Halsi Island.
2. Rampur – is situated on the south coast of the island, north of Bhingai Island.

Now describe the position of the other eight places, using some of the words in the box.

Answers:
Lakshmanpur Rampur/Bhingai Island.

— Lalnagar is below the Neverest Hills in the north of Halsi Island.
— Sarkot is on the north coast of the island,
— Timpur lies on the shores of Strange Lake next to Nafran.
— Rampur (capital) is on the south coast opposite the Bhingai Island.
— Marwah is next to {along) the River Exe south of Bir Forest.
— Chickoor is just along Bir Forest on a tributary of the River Exe.
— Strange Lake is in the centre of the island, below the Neverest Hills.
— The Neverest Hills are north of Strange Lake, above Lalnagar.
— Nafran is between Chickoor and Timpur.
— Lakshmanpur is situated on {along) the west coast opposite the Bir Forest.

Question 9.
Look at the map below.
You have invited three friends to a party at your house. Write three separate notes, giving them directions from 1, 2 and 3 to your house. You may use the words in the box.

The directions from (1) are given here as an example

Go down Diwan Marg and turn right down Antonio Avenue. Walk as far as the traffic lights then turn right into Mount Road. Turn first left into The Crescent and my house is on the left.
________________________________
Answers:
1. The directions for route no. 1 are given in the Workbook.

2. Come out of the station and turn right into the Osborne road. Walk down this road and cross the round about ahead of you. Continue walking straight till the traffic lights. Don’t go straight but turn to the left and walk up this road ie, the Crescent. My house is on the right, opposite Seel Lake.

3. Go down the Pen Lane and turn the October Drive next to the Sports Field. Take the left hand road past the park up to the Crescent. Then turn left and my house is on the right opposite Seel Lake.

Question 10.
Work in pairs. Put one pencil on a point on the map where you live, and put another pencil on any other point. Ask your partner to tell the direction for getting to your house.

Prepositions of Time

Question 11.
You have recently been to a wedding. A British pen friend asks y JU to describe it. Using the words in the box, describe the different stages. Write only the body of the letter below.
_______________________________________________
Answer:
The marriage procession with the band playing music reached the bride’s house at 7.30 pm on Saturday last. The bridegroom alighted from the mare. He was welcomed by the women of the house. One woman had a big plate with an earthen lamp lighted in it. She welcomed the bridegroom with it. Then he was taken to the place where marriage ceremony was to take place. He sat on the raised platform for some time. Then the bride came. He stood before the bride and both garlanded each other. Soon, they were seated for ‘Phere’ (taking rounds round the fire). We sat throughout the ceremony which lasted one and a half hours. At half past eleven the bridegroom and the bride were bidden farewell. Both walked to the waiting car. The bride’s parents and relatives waved hands until they were seen. The marriage ceremony/wedding was over within 3 hours. The bride who had been her father’s dearest daughter since birth was his now as a wife. This ceremony is very important in the lives of all.

Common Combinations Using Prepositions

Question 12.
Link the words from the different columns to produce meaningful sentences. One has been completed as an example. If you wish, write out the correct sentences in your notebook.

Answers:
He went on foot.
She is ill in hospital (NB : Not ‘at hospital’).
They’re so much in love.
The Prince came by air.
The poor animal is in pain.
That’s enough for / at the moment.
The style is out of date.
They met by chance.
The house is not for sale.
He’s not at work.

Question 13.
Verbs and Prepositions

Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions

1. You’re right. I agree __________ you.
2. The conclusions are based __________ extensive research.
3. He arrived __________ Delhi airport at 2 am and then arrived the city at 4 am.
4. He angrily shouted __________ the pupil.
5. “Remember the party!” she shouted __________ her friend.
6. A differs __________ B in a number of ways.
7. He applied __________ the teaching job but was turned down.
8. She replied __________ his last letter.
9. They apologized __________ breaking the vase.
10. Do you believe __________ ghosts?

Answers:

1. You’re right. I agree with you.
2. The conclusions are based on extensive research.
3. He arrived at Delhi airport at 2 am and then arrived in the city at 4 am.
4. He angrily shouted at the pupil.
5. “Remember the party !”, she shouted to her friend.
6. A differs from B in a number of ways.
7. He applied for the teaching job but was turned down.
8. She replied to his last letter.
9. They apologised for breaking the vase.
10. Do you believe in ghosts ?

Question 14.
Adjectives and Prepositions

Look at the table below. Decide which of the adjectives in Column A commonly go with which preposition. Tick the table as shown. (There may be more than one tick for each adjective)

Answer:

Question 15.
Use the adjectives and prepositions from the box above to fill in the gaps below. Add eight sentences of your own.

1. Mary is bad ________ Maths.
2. Fruit is good ________ you.
3. Ram was married ________ Beena for 10 years. They were very happy.
4. This tool is more ________ planing wood.
5. What good news! I’m so ________ you.
6. He’s ________ her; she looks ill.
7. She’s ashamed ________ her bad behaviour.
8. They are fond ________ dancing.
9. He was absent ________ the Science Club yesterday.
10. He is sensitive ________ criticism.

Answers:

1. Mary is bad at Maths.
2. Fruit is good for you.
3. Ram was married to Beena for 10 years. They were very happy.
4. This tool is more suitable for planing wood.
5. What good news ! I’m so happy for you.
6. He’s worried about her ; she looks ill.
7. She’s ashamed at/about her bad behaviour.
8. They are fond of dancing.
9. He was absent from the Science Club yesterday.
10. He is sensitive to criticism.

Other Sentences

1. I cannot wait for you.
2. Will you drop me at the station?
3. I shall tell you about it later.
4. I get up at 6.00 am daily.
5. She is clever at calculations.
6. I am going to the market.
7. I go for a walk daily.
8. What are you talking about?

Question 16.
Think of a person in your class, and use adjective + prepositions from 14 to describe him/her in about two or three sentences. Don’t give a name.

Answers:
She’s very poor in English.
She’s qualified to teach swimming.
She’s famous for her witty remarks.

Show your description to your partner. Let her or him guess who it is.
Answer:
Do it yourself.

See the Workbook on Pages 116-117

We hope the NCERT English Workbook Class 9 Solutions Unit 8 Prepositions help you. If you have any query regarding CBSE Class 9 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Prepositions, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings Pdf free download is part of Class 6 Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings.

CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings

Aquatic habitat

• When organisms live in water, this place of living is known as aquatic habitat.
• Ponds, lakes, rivers, oceans, etc., are examples of aquatic habitat.
• Water is a medium in aquatic habitat.

Terrestrial habitat

• When organisms live on land, this place of living is known as terrestrial habitat.
• Forests, deserts, orchards, tea gardens and mountains are the examples of terrestrial habitat.
• Air is the medium in terrestrial habitat.

Mountain

• The mountain is a special terrestrial habitat where temperature is very low and most of the areas are covered with snow.
• The plants like grasses, mosses and lichens and animals like snow bear, fox, water fowl, musk deer and wolf are found commonly in this habitat.

Several kinds of plants and animals may share the same habitat.

Adaptation: The change of specific features and habits, which enables a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat is called adaptation.

Components of a habitat

Light

• The sunlight is essential for the survival of the biotic components as the sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living things.
• The sunlight affects growth, flowering, seed germination and in many other ways in plants. Indoor plants put in the shade for a long time grow faster but become delicate and weak.
• Light also affects animals. Animals living in caves and burrows where sunlight cannot reach have very much reduced eyes e.g., Proteus. Amblyopsis do not have eyes.
• Nocturnal animals: Some animals like bats, cockroaches and owls are called nocturnal as they are active during night.

Temperature

• Temperature regulates growth, movement, reproduction, morphology and other aspects of life.
• Animals living in hot areas e.g., snakes, desert rats and lizards are not able to get sufficient water. They have thick skin and do not sweat.
• Desert animals e.g., camel have long legs. Long legs help them to lift their body above the ground. Thus, they are able to avoid direct contact with the hot ground.

Water

• All living organisms need water for their survival.
• Aquatic plants: These have the following adaptations:
  • Root system is poorly developed.
  • Air filled cavities found inside the body make them spongy and buoyant.
  • Leaves in submerged plants are thin and narrow; while in floating plants, they are big and flat with waxy coating.
• Desert plants: These have the following adaptations:
  • Well-developed root systems.
  • Stem is succulent and spongy which help in storage of water. It is also green and performs photosynthesis.
  • Stomata (sunken) are less in number.
  • Leaves are either very small or converted into spines.
• Fish: It has the following adaptation:
  • Tapering ends.
  • Slippery scales which help in swimming.
  • Gills for respiration.
• Phytoplanktons: These are floating plants, in aquatic habitat.
• Zooplankton: These are small animals floating on the surface of aquatic habitat.

Interaction of biotic and abiotic components: Organisms do not live in isolation but are interdependent.

Living things: These are the objects which need water, air and nutrients for their survival.

Non-living things: These are the objects which do not need water, air and nutrients for their survival.

Cell: It is the basic structural and functional unit of the living things. The structure of a cell can be seen in the peel of an onion bulb or from the lower surface of a leaf under a magnifying glass or a microscope.

Life: It is a process seen only in living objects in the form of growth, movement, feeding or eating, sensitivity, respiration, excretion and reproduction.

Characteristics of the living things: All living things on this earth possess certain basic characteristics. These include the following:

1. Growth
2. Movement
3. Feeding
4. Responsiveness
5. Excretion
6. Respiration
7. Cellular structure
8. Reproduction
9. Adaptation.

Growth: It is defined as the permanent irreversible increase in the size and total weight of the living object.

• Animals grow for a certain period.
• In case of trees, growth takes place throughout the life.
• Growth in plants and animals is influenced by several factors like food, climate, life style, etc.

Life Span: Each animal lives for a certain period. This period is referred to as life span.

Movement: Change in the position from one place to other is called movement.

• Locomotion: The movement involving change of place in animals is called locomotion.
• Animals use wings (bird), fins (fish), limbs (cow, horse, buffalo, man) for locomotion.
• Plants generally show movements of various parts, e.g., flower buds open, roots grow away from light, when we touch the leaves of mimosa (touch me not), they shrivel up.

Cellular Structure

• Cells constitute plants and animal bodies.
• Cells are organised in various ways in different organisms.
• They help in carrying out various functions like nutrition, respiration, etc.
• They are called structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

Nutrition: The process of taking food by organisms is generally referred to as nutrition or nourishment.

• Food and water are essential for life.
• Food provides energy that helps in the growth of body and its repair.
• Autotrophs: They are the living forms which can synthesize their own food by photosynthesis, e.g., green plants.
• Heterotrophs: They are the living organisms which cannot manufacture their own food, e.g., all animals.
• Saprophytes: The living organisms which obtain their nutrition from the dead plants and animals are called saprophytes.
• Parasites: The plants and animals that feed on the other living bodies are called parasites.

Respiration

• Respiration is a process in which oxygen taken by an organism combines with reserved food, undergoes oxidation and releases energy.
• Breathing: Taking in air and releasing it in animals is referred to as breathing.
• We inhale oxygen (O2) and exhale carbon dioxide (CO2).

Excretion

• The removal of excretory waste from the body of a living being is called excretion.
• The process of removal of wastes in plants is referred to as secretion.
• Latex, resin and gum are wastes for the plant but useful for us.

Response to Stimuli

• Living beings respond to changes in their surroundings.
• Stimuli: The factors like food, water, light, touch, gravitational force, etc., are stimuli (stimulus) to which plants and animals respond.

Reproduction

• The process of a living being to produce of its own kind is called reproduction.
• Life produces life.
• Plants reproduce through seeds. Some plants also reproduce through vegetative parts.

Adaptation: The change in specific features and habits which enable a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat is called adaptation.

Aquatic habitat: When organisms live in water, their place of living is known as aquatic habitat.

Biotic component: Living things of a habitat form its biotic component.

Excretion: The removal of nitrogeneous waste substances from the body of a living being is called excretion.

Growth: Increase in size and total weight of the living organism is called growth.

Habitat: The place where an organism survives, flourishes and reproduces is called its habitat.

Living things: These are the things which need water, air and nutrients for their survival.

Reproduction: The process of a living being to produce of its own kind is called reproduction.

Respiration: Respiration is a process in which air taken by an organism combines with the reserved food, undergoes oxidation and releases energy.

Stimulus: The factors like food, water, light, touch, gravitational force, etc., are stimuli to which plants and animals respond.

We hope the given CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings Pdf free download will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 8 Web Application Development Pdf free download is part of Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 8 Web Application Development.

CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 8 Web Application Development

WWW (World Wide Web)
It is a wide network of Internet that supports different web protocols.
World Wide Web is a common example of information protocol/service that can be used to send and receive information over the Internet (between clients and servers).

1. Multimedia Information It includes different types of movies, music, pictures, graphics, sounds, text, etc.
2. Hyper Text Information It includes the links of different types of information resources.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI) A user can point/click on the graphical icon to request any information instead of typing in text commands.

World wide web is based on client/server software design. A client/server software design requires two types of softwares to work in communication environment.

• Client Software It is a type of software, which is used by a client (or an user) to request some information from web server, e.g. Web browsers.
• Server Software It is a type of software, which is used by the server to answer the request and provide the required information, e.g. Microsoft, Oracle, etc. It is possible to use your local computer as a server but usually you want to have a fixed server, which runs 24 x 7 hours. So, more advanced and large systems are used as a server instead of local computers.

Web Browser
Web browser is a software application, which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music and other information that could be on a website. It is used for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web (WWW). An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and it may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content.

Hyperlinks present in resources enable users to easily navigate their browsers to related resources. A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet.
The major web browsers are Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera, Safari, etc.

Web Server
A web server is a program that runs on a computer connected to the Internet. It is simply a computer with an Internet connection that runs software designed to send out HTML, DHTML, XML or Java based pages and other file formats such as multimedia files. Web server can refer to either the hardware or software or combination of both which helps to deliver web content that can be accessed through the Internet.

The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request of client using the HTTP. This means delivery of HTML documents and any additional content that may be included in a document such as images, style sheets and scripts.
A web server provides four major functions:

1. Serving web pages.
2. Running gateway programs and returning output.
3. Controlling access to the server.
4. Monitoring and logging server access statistics.

Web Address/URL
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator (URL). It is the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web (WWW). It is also known as web address. The first part of the URL is called a protocol identifier and it indicates which protocol is to be used and the second part is called a resource name and it specifies the IP address of the domain name, where the resource is located. The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a colon and two forward slashes. Third part is the directory name and the fourth part is the file name with its extension.
The basic syntax of a URL is as follows:

<Protocol>://<web_server_name>/<directory_name>/<file_name>
or
Protocol://Website_address/File_Path/File_Name
e.g. ftp://www.webopedia.com/us/stuff.exe
http://www.webopedia.com/en/index.html.

Here, these URL consists of,

• Protocol: ftp or http
• Host name: www
• Domain name: webopedia
• Domain type: com
• File path: en or us
• File name with extension: stuff, exe or index, html

There are mainly three types of URLs as follows:

1.  Absolute URL It is the type of URL, which uses the complete web path of a file to provide the location of the resource, i.e. they provide the actual domain name.

   e.g. “http://www.oracle.sun.com/en/index.html”

2. Relative URL It is the type of URL that defines the path of an URL on a domain, without including the domain name. Relative URLs are more convenient because they are short in length, more portable in website maintenance.

   e.g. we specified only “.../images/house.png”

3. Fragment URL In this type of URL # character is used in absolute or relative URL. The part of the URL to the left of # symbol is used to identify a resource and the part of the right of #, specifies a location within the resource and is known as fragment identifier.

   e.g. “http://arihantbooks.com/store.html#download”

Communicating with Web Servers
Our communication with web server follows a request-response architecture. When using request-response architecture, one computer sends a request to other computer and other computer responds to that request. The requesting computer is called a client and the other computer, which is processing that request is called web server.

Over the web when a client types an URL in the address bar of its web browser then a request is generated, e.g. we have typed the url “http://www.arihantbooks.com/store.htm”. Then the server for the domain “arihant.com” will search for the page “store.htm” and will send it to the requesting client’s browser which in turn will provide the page on your computer so that you can view it.

Concept of Client/Server Side
Client Side
The client is any computer process that requests services from the server. The client is also known as the front-end-application, reflecting the fact that the end user usually interacts with the client process. The action taking place on the user’s (or the client’s) computer system are known as client-side.
e.g. Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, ete.

Server Side
The server is any computer process providing services to the clients. The server is also known as the back-end-application, reflecting the fact that the server process provides the background services for a client process. The actions taking place on a web server are known as server-side. e.g. Google, Yahoo, etc.

Client/Server Communication
Client/Server communication is a term used to describe a computing model for the development of computerised systems. This model is based on hardware and software components that interact to form a system.
A communication channel is the medium through which a client and a server communicate with each other. It is made up of several layers of software that aid to the transmission of data and control information between clients and servers, e.g. Wired and Wireless media.

Here, all clients must have open access to all the services provided within the network and these services must not be dependent on the location of the client or the server. This communication commonly use different types of protocols (set of rules and regulations to access Internet) to maintain communication between a client and a server.
Some of the protocols for client/server communication are as follows:

• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) It is used to define the format, transmission of web pages and the actions performed by the web server in response to user’s request.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) It is used for exchanging files over the Internet and works similar to the HTTP.
  SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) It is a protocol for sending e-mail messages between the servers.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) It is a suite of two protocols, which is used to connect hosts on the Internet.
• Telnet Protocol It is a program running on client’s computer, which connects their PC to a server on the network.

Client/Server communication model works in two forms as:
1. For Static Web Pages The client requests for a web page (HTML file) from server via server-site software tools. The server locates the requested file in its database and passes it to the client which is displayed on client’s screen. The requested web page is static and it cannot be altered. These web pages have the file extension .htm or .html.

2. For Dynamic Web Pages The client requests for a web page (DHTML file) from server via server-site software tools. The server locates the requested file in its database and passes it to the client, which is displayed on client’s screen. A dynamic web page displays different content each time it is viewed. A dynamic web page contains client-side scripting or server-side scripting language to generate the changing content.
Dynamic web pages are generated by two different technologies as follows:

• CGI Scripts CGI stands for Common Gateway Interface. It is the technique used to generate dynamic content on DHTML web pages according to the query passed through CGI program.

• Server-Side Scripts It is the technology by which a user’s request is fulfilled through running a script directly on the web server to generate dynamic web pages. Some server-side scripting languages are ASP (Active Server Pages), ANSI C scripts, JSP (Java Server Pages), PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor/Personal Home Pages), etc.
  

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 8 Web Application Development Pdf free download will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 8 Web Application Development, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 7 Hindi निबंध-लेखन Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 7 Hindi निबंध-लेखन.

CBSE Class 7 Hindi निबंध-लेखन

निबंध गद्य की विशेष विधा है। नि + बंध अर्थात नियोजित रूप में बँधा होना। यह अपने विचारों को प्रकट करने का उत्तम माध्यम है। इसमें लेखक किसी विषय पर स्वतंत्र, मौलिक तथा सारगर्भित विचार क्रमबद्ध रूप में प्रस्तुत करता है। निबंध लिखते समय निम्नलिखित बातों का ध्यान रखना चाहिए-

• निबंध निर्धारित शब्द-सीमा के अंतर्गत ही लिखा जाता है।
• निबंध के वाक्य क्रमबद्ध और सुसंबद्ध होने चाहिए तथा विचार मौलिक हो। निबंध की भाषा प्रभावशाली और विषयानुकूल हो तथा उसमें विराम-चिह्नों का यथास्थान प्रयोग किया जाता हो।
• निबंध दिए गए संकेत बिंदुओं के आधार पर ही लिखा गया हो।
• निबंध में दिए गए संकेतों के आधार पर विषय वस्तु अलग-अलग अनुच्छेदों में व्यक्त हो। अनावश्यक बातों का वर्णन निबंध में नहीं होना चाहिए।

निबंध चार प्रकार के होते हैं-

1. विचारात्मक निबंध
2. भावात्मक निबंध
3. वर्णनात्मक निबंध
4. विवरणात्मक निबंध।

1. समाज, साहित्य, राजनीति, धर्म आदि विषयों पर जब अपने विचार रखे जाते हैं तो वे विचारात्मक निबंध कहलाते हैं।
2. जब व्यक्तिगत या सामाजिक अनुभवों को रोचक व भाव प्रधान ढंग से लिखा जाता है तो वे भावात्मक निबंध कहलाते हैं।
3. प्राकृतिक दृश्य, मेला, घटना आदि का वर्णन पर आधारित निबंध, वर्णनात्मक निबंध कहलाते हैं।
4. ऐतिहासिक स्थल, संस्मरण या काल्पनिक घटनाओं पर आधारित निबंध विवरणात्मक निबंध कहलाते हैं।

निबंध के अंग

1. भूमिका/प्रस्तावना – किसी विषय का प्रारंभिक परिचय देते हुए एक अनुच्छेद में जो पंक्तियाँ लिखी जाती हैं उन्हें भूमिका कहते हैं। इसे ही प्रस्तावना भी कहते हैं। भूमिका सारगर्भित होने के साथ-साथ कौतूहल और जिज्ञासा जगाने वाली होनी चाहिए।
2. विषय विस्तार/प्रतिपादन – इसमें विषय की पूरी तरह जाँच-पड़ताल की जाती है। उसमें कई अनुच्छेद होने चाहिए।
3. उपसंहार – निबंध में कही कई बातों को सार रूप में प्रस्तुत कर विषय का निष्कर्ष निकाला जा सकता है या पाठकों को एक संदेश दिया जा सकता है।

1. समय का सदुपयोग
काल करे सो आज कर, आज करे सो अब ।।
पल में परलै होयगी, बहुरि करोगे कब।

कबीर की उपर्युक्त पंक्तियों में समय के महत्त्व की चर्चा की गई है। इस संसार में प्रायः सभी चीजों को बढ़ाया-घटाया जा सकता है, पर समय का एक पल भी बढ़ा पाना मनुष्य के सामर्थ्य से बाहर है। इसलिए समय इस संसार की सबसे मूल्यवान वस्तु है। इसलिए मानव का कर्तव्य है कि वह समय के एक-एक क्षण का सदुपयोग करे। समय का सदुपयोग हमारे जीवन में सफलता की कुंजी है। यह जीवन तो नश्वर और अनिश्चित है। इसलिए प्रतिदिन समय का सही सदुपयोग करते हुए हमें जीवन को सफल बनाना चाहिए। जो समय बरबाद करता है, समय उसी को बरबाद कर देता है, जो इसका सम्मान करता है, इसके एक-एक पल का सदुपयोग करता है, समय उसे सफलता की ऊँचाइयों तक पहुँचा देता है। समय को बरबाद करने वाले मनुष्य सुअवसर हाथ से खो जाने पर सिर धुन कर पछताते रह जाते हैं।

समय के सदुपयोग के कारण ही अनेक वैज्ञानिक अनेक महत्त्वपूर्ण आविष्कार करने में समर्थ हुए। मानव सभ्यता के विकास की कहानी भी समय के सदुपयोग की कहानी कहती है।

विद्यार्थियों के लिए तो समय बहुत ही उपयोगी है। समय का सदुपयोग करने वाला विद्यार्थी ही ज्ञान प्राप्त करता है तथा इसी ज्ञान के बल पर जीवन में कुछ बन जाता है। इसके विपरीत जो विद्यार्थी अपने बहुमूल्य क्षणों को खेलकूद मौज मस्ती या आलस्य में नष्ट कर देता है, उसका भावी जीवन उतना ही अंधकारमय हो जाता है।

महात्मा गांधी, रवींद्रनाथ टैगोर, राजेंद्र प्रसाद, जगदीश चंद्र वसु, पंडित जवाहर लाल नेहरू आदि नेता समय का पूरी तरह से सदुपयोग किया करते थे और इसलिए इतने महान बन गए। समय के दुरुपयोग से व्यक्ति आलसी तथा निकम्मा बन जाता है। तथा पग-पग पर उसे असफलता तथा निराशा का मुँह देखना पड़ता है।

हमें ध्यान रखना चाहिए कि समय का प्रत्येक क्षण भविष्य का निर्माता है। समय का सदुपयोग करने वाला मनुष्य जीवन में दिन-प्रतिदिन उन्नति करता है और समय की उपेक्षा करने वाला मनुष्य कभी सफलता नहीं पाता। समय एक देवता है जो यदि प्रसन्न हो जाए, तो सिकंदर बना देता है पर यदि कुपित हो जाए तो समूल नाश कर देता है।

2. गणतंत्र दिवस
भारत की पवित्र भूमि पर अनेक पर्व तथा उत्सव मनाए जाते हैं। इन पर्वो का अपना विशेष महत्त्व होता है। धार्मिक और सांस्कृतिक पर्वो के अतिरिक्त कुछ ऐसे पर्व हैं जिनका संबंध सारे राष्ट्र के जन-जीवन से होता है। इन्हें ‘राष्ट्रीय पर्व’ कहते हैं। 26 जनवरी इन्हीं में से एक है। यह भी एक प्रसिद्ध राष्ट्रीय त्योहार है। इसे गणतंत्र दिवस के रूप में मनाया जाता है। गणतंत्र का अर्थ है- जनता का राज्य। यह दिन हमारे लिए बड़ा शुभ है। इस दिन हमारा देश गणतंत्र बना था। भारत को स्वतंत्रता तो 15 अगस्त 1947 को ही मिल गई थी, परंतु जब सारे नियम बनाकर संविधान की पुस्तक तैयार कर दी गई तब 26 जनवरी 1950 के दिन भारत को पूरी तरह से स्वतंत्र गणतंत्र बना दिया गया। सारे संसार में इसकी घोषणा हो गई। भारत 26 जनवरी 1950 में पूरी तरह से स्वतंत्र है और यहाँ जनता का अपना राज्य है। कोई भी मनुष्य भारत का राष्ट्रपति बन सकता है। सबसे पहले राष्ट्रपति डॉ० राजेंद्र प्रसाद थे। वे बिहार के एक गाँव के किसान के लड़के थे, परंतु अपनी योग्यता के कारण राष्ट्रपति बने थे।

26 जनवरी के दिन दिल्ली शहर को दुल्हन की तरह सजाया जाता है। लोग सवेरे अंधेरे में ही उठकर इंडियागेट की ओर चल पड़ते हैं। नियत समय पर राष्ट्रपति महोदय विजय चौक पर झंडा फहराते हैं। तब तोपों की सलामी दी जाती हैं। राष्ट्रपति की सवारी इंडिया गेट की ओर चल पड़ती है। लाखों लोग इस जुलूस को देखते हैं। राष्ट्रपति की गाड़ी के पीछे जल सेना, वायु सेना और थल सेना के जवान होते हैं। हाथियों और हथियारों के जुलूस निकलते हैं। इनके पीछे प्रदेशों की कई तरह की झाँकियाँ होती हैं। इनमें उन प्रदेशों (राज्यों) की संस्कृति की झलक दिखाई जाती है।

झाँकियों के पीछे स्कूलों के बच्चों की कतारें होती हैं। ये कतारें परेड या नृत्य करती आती है। सब लोग अनुशासन में चलते हैं। इस जुलूस से सबके मन में खुशी की लहर दौड़ जाती है।

भारत के सभी प्रदेशों की राजधानियों में भी गणतंत्र दिवस बड़ी धूम-धाम से मनाया जाता है। प्रदेशों में राज्यपालों के द्वारा झंडा फहराया जाता है। इसके बाद उनका भाषण होता है। फिर लोग खुशी-खुशी अपने-अपने घरों को लौटते हैं। गणतंत्र दिवस समारोह को देखकर भारतवासी गौरव का अनुभव करते हैं।

3. होली
रंगों का त्योहार होली वसंत ऋतु के आगमन का संदेशवाहक है। इसे वसंत का यौवन कहा जाता है। हमारे पूर्वजों ने होली के उत्सव को आपसी प्रेम का प्रतीक माना है। इसमें छोटे-बड़े सभी मिलकर पुराने भेद-भाव को भुला देते हैं। होली हँसी-खुशी का त्योहार है। यह एकता, भाई-चारे, मिलन और खुशी का प्रतीक है।

यह त्योहार फाल्गुन मास की पूर्णमासी को मनाया जाता है। इसमें एक-दूसरे पर रंग डालते हैं। रंग-गुलाल भी मलते हैं। रंग पानी में घोल पिचकारी चलाने से बड़ा आनंद आता है। सबके मन मस्त हो जाते हैं। लोग नाचते-गाते हैं और विभिन्न प्रकार का स्वांग रचते हैं। आपस में गले मिलते हैं।

इस त्योहार की धार्मिक कथा है कि प्राचीन समय में प्रहलाद नाम का एक ईश्वर भक्त था। उसके पिता हिरण्य कश्यप कहते थे मुझे ईश्वर मानो, लेकिन उसका पुत्र ईश्वर भक्त था। पिता के कहने पर भी प्रहलाद ने भगवान की भक्ति नहीं छोड़ी। हिरण्य कश्यप की बहन होलिका थी।

अत्याचारी हिरण्य कश्यप के कहने पर होलिका प्रह्लाद को गोद में लेकर चिता में बैठ गई थी। होलिका तो जल गई पर प्रहलाद बच गया। इसी घटना की याद में आज भी लोग लकड़ियों के ढेर को होली बनाकर जलाते हैं तथा उसकी परिक्रमा करते हैं। होली का त्योहार बुराई पर भलाई की विजय का प्रतीक है।

अगले दिन फाग खेला जाता है। सुबह से ही लोग टोलियाँ बनाकर एक-दूसरे को गुलाल लगाते हैं, रंग डालते हैं और गले मिलते हैं। लोग नाचते-गाते अपने घरों से निकलते हैं. और रंग का उत्सव दोपहर तक चलता रहता है। दोपहर के बाद लोग एक-दूसरे को मिठाइयाँ खिलाते हैं। होली का पर्व, प्रेम, एकता और भाईचारे का संदेश देता है।

4. हमारा देश-भारत वर्ष
भारत एक अत्यंत प्राचीन देश है जो कभी ‘सोने की चिड़िया’ कहलाता था। यह देश ऋषि-मुनियों साधु-संतों, महापुरुषों आदि का देश है। स्वयं भगवान ने भी इसी देश में अवतार लिया। यह देश देवताओं का भी दुलारा है। राजा दुष्यंत के पुत्र के नाम पर इसका नाम ‘भारत’ पड़ा। यह एक विशाल देश है। जनसंख्या के आधार पर यह संसार में दूसरे नंबर पर है। यह हमारी प्रिय मातृ भूमि है। भारत की प्राकृतिक बनावट एवं इसकी संपदा अद्भुत है। भारत के उत्तर में हिमालय है और शेष तीन ओर समुद्र हैं। यहाँ पर अनेक पर्वत, नदियाँ, मैदान और मरुस्थल हैं।

भारत का क्षेत्रफल बहुत विशाल है। यह एक कृषि प्रधान देश है। यहाँ की लगभग 80 प्रतिशत जनता गाँवों में रहती है। यहाँ गेहूँ, मक्का, ज्वार, धान, गन्ना आदि की फ़सलें होती हैं। यहाँ की धरती बहुत उपजाऊ है। यहाँ के हरे-भरे वन इसकी शोभा बढ़ाते हैं। यहाँ गंगा-यमुना जैसी पवित्र नदियाँ बहती हैं।

यहाँ ताजमहल, लालकिला, कुतुब मीनार, स्वर्ण मंदिर, अजंता तथा एलोरा की गुफाएँ देखने योग्य हैं। यहाँ सारनाथ, शिमला, मंसूरी, श्रीनगर, नैनीताल, भ्रमण योग्य स्थान हैं। यहाँ श्रीराम, श्रीकृष्ण, गुरुनानक, बुद्ध, विवेकानंद, दयानंद, रामतीर्थ जैसे महापुरुष पैदा हुए हैं। भारत की भूमि में सोना, चांदी, तांबा, लोहा, कोयला आदि अनेक प्रकार के खनिज मिलते हैं।

यहाँ भिन्न-भिन्न धर्मों के लोग रहते हैं। सभी लोग बड़े प्रेम से रहते हैं। सब अपने-अपने ढंग से ईश्वर की आराधना करते हैं। यहाँ पर अनेक तीर्थ-स्थल हैं। हमारा देश दिन दुगुनी रात चौगुनी उन्नति करे। हम ईश्वर से यही प्रार्थना करते हैं। इसके अलावे प्रत्येक भारतवासी का भी कर्तव्य है कि वह देश की अखंडता और एकता के लिए कार्य करे तथा इसके सम्मान की रक्षा के लिए संकल्प ले।

5. विद्यार्थी जीवन
भारतीय संस्कृति में मानव जीवन को चार अवस्थाओं या आश्रमों में विभक्त किया गया है- ब्रह्मचर्य आश्रम, गृहस्थ आश्रम, वानप्रस्थ आश्रम, तथा संन्यास आश्रम। जन्म से लेकर 25 वर्ष तक की आयु के काल को ब्रह्मचर्य आश्रम कहा जाता था। यही विद्यार्थी जीवन है। इस काल में विद्यार्थी को गुरुकुल में रहकर विद्याध्ययन करना पड़ता था। विद्यार्थी जीवन मनुष्य जीवन
की सबसे अधिक मधुर तथा सुनहरी अवस्था है। विद्यार्थी जीवन सारे जीवन की नींव है। अतः मानव जीवन की सफलताअसफलता विद्यार्थी जीवन पर ही आश्रित है। इसी काल में भावी जीवन की भव्य इमारत की आधारशिला का निर्माण होता है। यह आधारशिला जितनी मजबूत होगी, भावी जीवन भी उतना ही सुदृढ़ होगा। इस काल में विद्याध्ययन तथा ज्ञान प्राप्ति पर ध्यान न देने वाले विद्यार्थी जीवन के किसी भी क्षेत्र में सफल नहीं हो पाते।

विद्यार्थी का पहला कर्तव्य विद्या ग्रहण करना है। इसी जीवन में विद्यार्थी अपने लिए अपने माता-पिता तथा परिवार के लिए और समाज और अपने राष्ट्र के लिए तैयार हो रहा होता है। विद्यार्थी का यह कर्तव्य है कि वह अपने शरीर, बुद्धि, मस्तिष्क, मन और आत्मा के विकास के लिए पूरा-पूरा यत्न करे। आलस्य विद्यार्थियों का सबसे बड़ा शत्रु है। जो विद्यार्थी निकम्मे रहकर समय आँवा देते हैं, उन्हें भली-भाँति अपने लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति नहीं होती। विद्यार्थी जीवन का एक-एक क्षण अमूल्य है।

विद्यार्थी को संयमी होना पड़ता है। व्यसनों में फँसने वाले विद्यार्थी कभी उन्नति नहीं कर सकते। शिक्षकों तथा माता-पिता के प्रति आदर और श्रद्धा भाव रखना विद्यार्थी के लिए नितांत आवश्यक है। अनुशासन प्रियता, नियमितता, समय पर काम करना, उदारता, दूसरों की सहायता, पुरुषार्थ, सत्यवादिता, देश-भक्ति आदि विद्यार्थी जीवन के आवश्यक गुण हैं। इन गुणों के विकास
के लिए प्रयत्नशील रहना चाहिए। इसके लिए उन्हें कुसंगति से बचना चाहिए तथा आलस्य का परित्याग करके विद्यार्थी जीवन के लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए प्रयत्नशील होना चाहिए। आज के विद्यार्थी वर्ग की दुर्दशा के लिए वर्तमान शिक्षा पद्धति भी जिम्मेदार है। अतः उसमें परिवर्तन आवश्यक है।

शिक्षाविदों का यह दायित्व है कि वे देश की भावी पीढ़ी को अच्छे संस्कार देकर उन्हें प्रबुद्ध तथा कर्तव्यनिष्ठ नागरिक बनाएँ तो साथ ही विद्यार्थियों का भी कर्तव्य है कि भारतीय संस्कृति के उच्चादर्शों को अपने जीवन में उतारने के लिए कृतसंकल्प हो।

6. विज्ञान-वरदान या अभिशाप
आधुनिक युग विज्ञान का युग कहलाता है। विज्ञान ने अनेक चमत्कारिक आविष्कार किए हैं। इसने मनुष्य के व्यक्तिगत, सामाजिक तथा आर्थिक जीवन में आश्चर्यजनक परिवर्तन ला दिए हैं। आज मनुष्य चंद्रमा और अन्य ग्रहों-उपग्रहों तक पहुँचकर अपनी कीर्ति-पताका फहरा रहा है। यह सब विज्ञान की ही देन है।

आज विज्ञान ने यातायात के ऐसे द्रुतगामी साधन दिए हैं कि यह दुनिया के किसी भी कोने में थोड़े समय में पहुँच सकता है। टेलीफ़ोन, बेतार के तार, टेलीप्रिंटर सैल्यूलर फ़ोन, सेटलाइट फ़ोन जैसी अनेक सुविधाएँ प्रदान की हैं जिससे संचार माध्यमों में क्रांति आ गई है। मनोरंजन के क्षेत्र में दूरदर्शन, विडियो, चित्रपट जैसे साधन देकर विज्ञान ने मानव को उपकृत किया है।

चिकित्सा के क्षेत्र में विज्ञान की उपलब्धियाँ अत्यंत चौका देने वाली हैं। कल तक जो बीमारियाँ असाध्य समझी जाती थीं, उनका उपचार आज संभव है। आज तो मानव शरीर के अंगों का प्रत्यारोपण, अल्ट्रासाउंड, शल्प चिकित्सा, टेस्ट ट्यूब बेबी, स्कैनिंग जैसे अत्याधुनिक सुविधाओं ने अनेक असाध्य रोगों पर विजय प्राप्त कर ली है। इसके अतिरिक्त कृषि, शिक्षा, आवास, उद्योग, मुद्रण कला जैसे अनेक क्षेत्रों में भी विज्ञानों के वरदानों ने चमत्कारिक प्रगति की है।

आज इतनी उपलब्धियों के बावजूद विज्ञान एक अभिशाप भी है। ऐसे-ऐसे अस्त्र-शस्त्रों का निर्माण हुआ है जो एक ही प्रहार में पूरे शहर को नष्ट कर देने की क्षमता रखते हैं। न्यूट्रान बम सारे जीवित प्राणियों को मार डालता है और संपत्ति बच जाती है। आपसी होड़ के कारण, रूस, अमेरिका, फ्रांस, चीन, इंग्लैंड आदि देशों ने हथियारों का इतना भयानक भंडार बना लिया है कि यदि कभी विश्वयुद्ध छिड़ गया तो आधी दुनिया तत्काल समाप्त हो जाएगी।

सच तो यह है कि विज्ञान अपने आप में एक महान शक्ति है। मनुष्य इसका जैसा चाहे वैसा उपयोग कर सकता है। अणु-शक्ति के प्रयोग से बड़े-बड़े बिजली घर भी बन सकते हैं और पलक झपकते लाखों लोगों की जान भी ले सकते हैं। यह तो हमारी विवेक-बुद्धि पर निर्भर करता है कि इसका किस प्रकार उपयोग करें।

7. मित्रता
मनुष्य सामाजिक प्राणी है। मनुष्य को जीवन में अनेक वस्तुओं की आवश्यकता होती है। वह अपनी आवश्यकताओं को स्वयं पूरा नहीं कर सकता है। अतः उसे दूसरे लोगों की सहायता की जरूरत पड़ती है। यही आवश्यकता मित्रता को जन्म देती है। मित्रता अनमोल धन है। इसकी तुलना हीरे-मोती या सोने-चाँदी से नहीं की जा सकती। एक सच्चा और प्रिय मित्र वही है जो सुख-दुख में साथ दे। सच्चे मित्रों के बीच किसी भी सामाजिक, आर्थिक और सांस्कृतिक परिस्थिति के कारण व्यवधान नहीं हो सकता। मित्रता मनुष्य के हृदय को जोड़ती है, प्राणों के तार मिलाती है।

मित्रता से अनेक लाभ होते हैं। मित्र के समान समाज में सुख और आनंद देने वाला दूसरा कोई नहीं है। दुख के दिनों में मित्र को देखते ही हृदय में शक्ति आ जाती है। सच्चा मित्र संकट के समय में अपने मित्र को उबारता है और अपने मित्र की रक्षा के लिए सामने आकर डट जाता है। सच्चा मित्र एक शिक्षक की भाँति होता है। वह अपने मित्र का मार्गदर्शन करता है। सच्चा मित्र सुख और दुख में समान भाव से मित्रता को निभाता है, जो आनंद पाने के लिए मित्र बने हों, उन्हें सच्चा मित्र नहीं कहा जा सकता। सामने मीठी बाते करने वाले और पीठ पीछे कार्य बिगाड़ने वाले मित्र को विष के घड़े के समान त्याग देना चाहिए।

सच्ची मित्रता ईश्वर का वरदान है। वह आसानी से नहीं मिलती। सच्चा मित्र दुर्लभ होता है लेकिन जब वह मिल जाता है, तब अपने मित्र के सारे कार्यों को सुलभ बना देता है।

8. दशहरा (विजयादशमी)
‘दशहरा’ शब्द का शाब्दिक अर्थ है ‘दस सिरों का हारना’ क्योंकि श्रीराम ने रावण को जिसके दस सिर थे, हरा दिया था, इसलिए इसका नाम ‘दशहरा’ पड़ गया। इसके अतिरिक्त इस पर्व को ‘विजयदशमी’ भी कहा जाता है। यह त्योहार आश्विन मास के शुक्ल पक्ष की दशमी को मनाया जाता है। दशहरा धर्म की अधर्म पर तथा न्याय की अन्याय पर विजय का प्रतीक है। इस समय वर्षा की ऋतु के बाद शरद् ऋतु की शुरुआत होती है। इस दिन श्रीराम ने लंका के अत्याचारी राजा रावण का वध करके विजय प्राप्त की थी। रावण पर विजय प्राप्त करने की स्मृति में यह त्योहार मनाया जाता है।

बंगाल में यह त्योहार ‘दुर्गा पूजा’ के रूप में अत्यंत धूमधाम से मनाया जाता है। पुराणों की कथा के अनुसार, महिषासुर नामक राक्षस के अत्याचारों से जब पृथ्वी त्राहि-त्राहि कर उठी, तो माँ दुर्गा ने उसके साथ नौ दिन तक घोर संग्राम किया। इसके बाद दसवें दिन उसे मार गिराया। इसलिए नौ दिन तक नवरात्र पूजा होती है और दसवें दिन दुर्गा की प्रतिमा को नदी या समुद्र में विसर्जित किया जाता है। दशहरे से पहले आठ दिन तक रामलीला होती है। रामलीला के दौरान कागज़ और बाँस आदि की सहायता से रामलीला मैदान में एक और लंकी बनाई जाती है। उसे बम, पटाखों और आतिशबाजी के अन्य वस्तुओं से सजाया जाता है। हनुमान जी के द्वारा उसमें आग लगा दी जाती है। दूसरी ओर से रावण और राक्षस आदि आते हैं। उनका युद्ध होता है। एक बड़े खुले मैदान में रावण, कुंभकरण और मेघनाद के बड़े-बड़े पुतले बनाकर खड़े किए जाते हैं। गोले और आतिशबाजियाँ चलती हैं। इसके बाद राम और लक्ष्मण के बाणों से रावण, कुंभकर्ण और मेघनाद के पुतले जल उठते हैं। दशहरा मनाने से श्रीरामचंद्र, लक्ष्मण, हनुमान आदि की वीरता और विजय का संस्कार बच्चों के हृदय पर बहुत पड़ता है। वे राम-लक्ष्मण की तरह धनुष-बाण लेकर खेल खेला करते हैं।

विजयदशमी का त्योहार अनेक दृष्टियों से महत्त्वपूर्ण है। यह त्योहार हमें यह प्रेरणा देता है कि धर्म की अधर्म पर सदा विजय होती है। श्रीराम ने रावण पर जो विजय प्राप्त की थी, वह धर्म की अधर्म पर, न्याय की अन्याय पर ही विजय थी। यह त्योहार हमें धर्म, मर्यादा तथा कर्तव्य-पालन की प्रेरणा देता है। श्रीराम के आदर्शों से जुड़ा यह त्योहार यह शिक्षा भी देता है कि हमें श्रीराम के समान बनने का प्रयास करना चाहिए और अन्याय के समझ कभी झुकना नहीं चाहिए। भारत की संस्कृति में त्योहारों का विशेष महत्त्व है। हमें चाहिए कि त्योहारों को हर्ष और उल्लाह से मनाएँ तथा उनसे प्रेरणा लें।

9. ‘प्रदूषण’
‘प्रदूषण’ शब्द में दो शब्द मिले हैं-प्र + दूषण अर्थात दूषयुक्त। प्रदूषण का साधारण अर्थ है पर्यावरण के संतुलन का दोषपूर्ण हो जाना। प्रदूषण के कारण ही जल, थल और वायु दूषित हो गई है।

वर्तमान युग को मशीनी युग कहा जाता है। जहाँ मशीन का सहारा लेकर मानव ने अपने जीवन को सुख सुविधाओं से युक्त बनाने के लिए अनेक आविष्कार कर डाले। वहीं दूसरी ओर अपने लिए नित नई समस्याओं को भी जन्म दे डाला। विज्ञान ने जहाँ हमारे जीवन में वरदान दिए, वहीं दूसरी ओर उसके वरदान अभिशाप भी बन गए। उन्हीं में से एक है-प्रदूषण। प्रदूषण की समस्या हमारे समक्ष सुरसा के समान मुँह बाए खड़ी है।

वनों की अंधाधुंध कटाई के कारण प्रकृति का संतुलन बिगड़ गया है। महानगर वायु प्रदूषण के प्रकोप से सर्वाधिक ग्रस्त हैं। इसका मुख्य कारण है नगरों का तीव्र गति से विकास व औद्योगीकरण। सड़कों पर दौड़ते वाहनों से निकलने वाले धुएँ व औद्योगिक चिमनियों से निकलने वाली जहरीली गैसों ने नगर के निवासियों का साँस लेना दूभर कर दिया है। लगातार बढ़ती जनसंख्या के कारण वाहनों व कारखानों की संख्या दिन-प्रतिदिन बढ़ती जा रही है, जिससे वायु प्रदूषण भी बढ़ रहा है।

छोटे क्षेत्रों व महानगरों में जल-प्रदूषण के भिन्न-भिन्न कारण हैं। नदियों में पशुओं को नहलाना, नदी के पानी में स्वयं स्नान करना व कपड़े आदि धोना गाँवों में जल प्रदूषण के मुख्य कारण हैं। महानगरों के कारखानों के पाइपों से निकलता गंदा, रसायनयुक्त जल आस-पास की नदियों में मिल जाता है तथा उसे और दूषित कर देता है। गंगा नदी का जल भी आज प्रदूषित हो चुका है। प्रदूषित जल को पीने से अनेक जानलेवा बीमारियाँ हो जाती हैं।

जल प्रदूषण के कारण पेट के रोग हो जाते हैं। कारखानों से निकलने वाला कचरा नदियों, नालों में बहा दिया जाता है, जो जल को इतना प्रदूषित कर देता है कि उसे पीने से व्यक्ति हैजा, अजीर्ण, आंत्र शोध जैसे अनेक रोगों का शिकार हो जाता है।

बड़े-बड़े महानगरों में आवास की भारी समस्या है। इसीलिए वहाँ झुग्गी-झोपड़ियाँ बन जाती हैं जिनमें मज़दूर आदि रहते हैं। इनके कारण गंदगी होती है तथा भूमि पर प्रदूषण होता है। मुंबई की चालें, दिल्ली की झुग्गी झोपड़ियाँ, कानपुर, चेन्नई तथा कोलकाता के स्लम इसके उदाहरण हैं। साथ ही अधिक अन्न उगाने के लिए जिस प्रकार कीटनाशकों तथा रासायनिकों का प्रयोग किया जा रहा है, उससे भी भूमि प्रदूषित होती है। भूमि पर प्रदूषण के कारण अनेक बीमारियों का जन्म होता है।

महानगरों में वाहनों, लाउडस्पीकरों, मशीनों तथा कल कारखानों के बढ़ते शोर के कारण ध्वनि प्रदूषण भी बढ़ गया है जिसके कारण रक्त-चाप, हृदय रोग, कान के रोग आदि जन्म लेते हैं।

आज प्रदूषण मानव स्वास्थ्य को धीरे-धीरे घुन की भाँति खाए जा रहा है। मलेरिया, हैजा, चिकनगुनिया कैंसर श्वास के रोग, उच्च रक्त चाप जैसी बीमारियाँ प्रदूषण के कारण बढ़ रही हैं। यद्यपि प्रदूषण एक विश्वव्यापी समस्या है तथापि इसका एकमात्र समाधान वृक्षारोपण है। वृक्ष वातावरण को शुद्ध वायु प्रदान करते हैं। औद्योगिक इकाइयों को यदि धनी आबादी वाले क्षेत्रों से हटकर नगरों से दूर स्थापित किया जाए, तो इससे प्रदूषण के विस्तार को रोका जा सकता है। वनों की अंधाधुंध कटाई पर रोक लगाई जानी चाहिए।

10. वसंत ऋतु
शीतल मंद सुगंध पवन हर लेता श्रम है। पेड़ ऋतुओं का विविध दृश्ययुक्त अद्भुत क्रम है। धन्य है भारतीय जो स्वर्ग से भी सुंदर धरा पर निवास करते हैं। भारत में छह ऋतुएँ पाई जाती हैं- वर्षा, शरद, शिशिर, हेमंत, वसंत और ग्रीष्म। सभी ऋतुओं की अपनी-अपनी विशेषताएँ हैं। अपनी-अपनी सुंदरता है। इन सभी ऋतुओं में वसंत ऋतु सबसे सुंदर मानी जाती है।

फाल्गुन और चैत्र – ये दो महीने वसंत के काल हैं। इस समय मौसम अत्यंत सुहावना होता है- न अधिक सरदी पड़ती है और न अधिक गरमी। अपने सुहावने मौसम के कारण ही वसंत को ऋतुराज कहा जाता है।

वसंत को प्रकृति का यौवन कहा जाता है। इस ऋतु में धरती एक नई नवेली दुल्हन की भाँति सजी-सँवरी दिखाई देती है। वसंत की शोभा वन-उपवन तथा सर्वत्र दिखाई देती है। ऐसा लगता है चारों ओर सौंदर्य का साम्राज्य छा गया हो। शीतल, मंद, सुगंधित , पवन बहने लगती है, फूलों पर तितलियाँ और भौरे मँडराते दिखते हैं, पीली-पीली सरसों देखकर ऐसा लगता है मानो धरती ने पीली चुनरिया ओढ़ ली हो। आम के वृक्ष बौर से लद जाते हैं तथा कोयल की गूंज सुनाई पड़ती है। प्रकृति के इस मादक रूप को देखकर मन मयूर नाच उठता है।

वसंत पंचमी से वसंत का आगमन होता है। वसंत पंचमी के दिन ही ज्ञान की देवी सरस्वती का आविर्भाव हुआ था, इसलिए इस दिन सरस्वती पूजन का आयोजन किया जाता है। किंवदंती है कि इसी दिन ब्रह्मा ने सृष्टि की रचना की थी। लोग पीले वस्त्र पहनते हैं तथा स्थान-स्थान पर वसंत मेले का आयोजन होता है। हिंदी के महाकवि निराला जी का जन्म भी इसी दिन हुआ था। इसलिए साहित्य प्रेमी “निराला जयंती’ का आयोजन करते हैं। स्थान-स्थान पर रंग-बिरंगी पतंगें भी उड़ाई जाती हैं। वसंत ऋतु हमारे जीवन में नव स्फूर्ति, नव उल्लास तथा नव-शक्ति का संचार करती है। यह ऋतु जड़-चेतन सभी में एक नई उमंग भर देती है। इस ऋतु में शरीर में नए रक्त का संचार होता है। स्वास्थ्य की दृष्टि से यह ऋतु अत्यंत महत्त्वपूर्ण होती है।

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CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 10 Motion and Measurement of Distances Pdf free download is part of Class 6 Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 10 Motion and Measurement of Distances.

CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 10 Motion and Measurement of Distances

In ancient time man used to move only on foot and carry goods either on his back or on the back of some animals.

A great change in the modes of transport was made:

• by the invention of wheel.
• by the invention of steam engine.

Non-standard measures: The lengths of steps, arms, hands, or fingers of different people are different, therefore the distance measured with their help is not always reliable. These methods are, therefore, called non-standard measures.

Standard measures: Measures that are the same all over the world are known as standard measures.

In October 1960, the 12th general conference on weight and measures adopted the International system of units. “The System International Units” is the set of units to maintain uniformity all over the world.

Metre: It is the standard unit of length. The symbol of metre is m.

Each metre (m) is divided into 100 equal divisions, called centimetre (cm). Each centimetre has ten equal divisions, called millimetre (mm). Thus
1 m = 100 cm
1 cm = 10 mm
For measuring large distances, metre is not a convenient unit. We define a larger unit of length. It is called kilometre (km).
1 km = 1000 m.

Simple multiples of units: Units that are used for the measurement of larger distances are the multiples of SI unit. For example: deca, hecto, kilo.
1 decametre = 10 m
1 hectometre = 100 m
1 kilometre = 1000 m

Sub-multiples of units: Units used for measuring smaller distances are the sub-multiples of SI units.
For example, milli, centi, deci.
1 m = 10 decimetre
1 m = 100 centimetre
1 m = 1000 millimetre.

Making measurement of a length: In making measurement of length of an object, we should follow the following procedure:
Place the scale in contact with the object along its length as shown in Fig.

Measurement with a scale with broken ends

• Avoid taking measurements from zero mark.
• Use any other full mark of the scale, say 1.0 cm.
• Subtract the reading of this mark from the reading at the other end. For example, in Fig. 10.3 (6), the reading at starting mark is 1.0 cm and at the other end it is 6.5 cm. Therefore, the length of the object is (6.5 – 1.0) cm = 5.5 cm.

Correct position of the eye is also important for making measurement. Your eye must be exactly above the point where the measurement is to be taken as shown in Fig. 10.4. Position ‘A’ is the correct position of the eye. Note that from position A’, the reading is 1.0 cm. From positions ‘B’ and ‘C’, the readings may be different.

Least count: A scale is marked in centimetres and millimetres. With the scales of this kind we can measure correctly up to one millimetre, that is one-tenth of a centimetre. This is called the least count of a (15 cm) scale.

Measuring the length of a curved line: We cannot measure the length of a curved line directly by using a metre scale. We can use a thread or divider to measure the length of a curved line.

Motion: It is a state of objects in which they are moving, that is, they are changing their place with the changing time.

Rest: All the stationary objects which are not in motion, that is, do not change their place with time are said to be at rest.

Rectilinear motion: When the objects change their position with time along a straight line, this type of motion is called rectilinear motion.

Circular motion

• When a body moves in a circular path, its motion is known as circular motion
• Examples:
  • motion of stone tied in a thread and whirled.
  • motion of a blade of an electric fan.
• motion of second’s hand in a clock.
• In circular motion, the object remains at the same distance from a fixed point.

Rotational motion: Motion in which a whole body moves about an axis is called a rotational motion. Example: motion of a top.

Periodic motion: Motion in which an object repeats its motion after a fixed interval of time is called periodic motion.
Examples:

• Oscillations of a pendulum.
• (Motion of a swing.
  

Combination of two or more types of motions: In some situations, the motion of an object may be a combination of two or more of the above mentioned types of motion.
Examples:

• Motion of a ball on the ground. Here, the ball is rotating about an axis but the axis itself is moving along a straight line. Thus, the ball executes a rectilinear motion as well as rotational motion.
• Motion of earth—earth executes rotations on its axis and also revolves around the sun.
  

Unit of measurements

• It involves the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known quantity of the same kind.
• This known fixed quantity is called unit.
• The result of measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is a number; the other part is the unit of measurement.

Circular motion: When a body moves in a circular path, its motion is known as circular motion.

Distance: Measurement of gap between two points in certain units is called distance.

Measurement: Measurement means the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known quantity.

Motion: It is a state of objects in w7hich they are moving that is, they are changing their place with time.

Periodic motion: Motion in which an object repeats its motion after a fixed interval of time is called periodic motion.

Rectilinear motion: When the objects change their position with time along a straight line, this type of motion is called rectilinear motion.

SI units: In October, 1960 the 12th general conference on weight and measures adopted the International system of units to maintain uniformity
all over the world. This system of units is called SI units.

Units of measurement: Measurement means the comparison of an unknown quantity with some known quantity. This known fixed quantity is called a unit of measurement.

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NCERT Exemplar Class 9 Science Chapter 15 Improvement in Food Resources are part of NCERT Exemplar Class 9 Science. Here we have given NCERT Exemplar Class 9 Science Solutions Chapter 15 Improvement in Food Resources.

NCERT Exemplar Class 9 Science Solutions Chapter 15 Improvement in Food Resources

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Which one is an oil yielding plant among the following?
(a) Lentil
(b) Sunflower
(c) Cauliflower
(d) Hibiscus
Solution:
(b) Sunflower is an oil yielding plant. Its seeds are used to extract oil.

Question 2.
Which one is not a source of carbohydrate?
(a) Rice
(b) Millets
(c) Sorghum
(d) Gram
Solution:
(d) Different plant products are rich in different nutrients like some are richer source of fats while some are richer source of minerals carbohydrates, vitamins, etc. Among the given food items rice, millets and sorghum are cereals and are rich source of carbohydrates while gram is a pulse and is a rich source of protein.

Question 3.
Find out the wrong statement from the following.
(a) White revolution is meant for increase in milk production.
(b) Blue revolution is meant for increase in fish production.
(c) Increasing food production without compromising with environmental quality is called as sustainable agriculture.
(d) None of the above
Solution:
(d) White revolution and blue revolution are the terms used to denote the period in which modem techniques and special strategies were applied to increase the production of milk and fish respectively. Sustainable agriculture refers to the agricultural improvement in a way that it does not affect environment negatively.

Question 4.
To solve the food problem of the country, which among the following is necessary?
(a) Increased production and storage of food grains
(b) Easy access of people to the food grain
(c) People should have money to purchase the grains
(d) All of the above
Solution:
(d) To feed the ever growing population, more food is required to be produced. Over the years food production in our country has increased considerably. To meet the demands of growing Indian population, our scientists adopted different methods to increase food production. It include green revolution (production of food grains), blue revolution (production of fishes), white revolution (production of milk) and yellow revolution (production of oil). All these revolutions made the country self reliant in terms of food production to certain extent. Now golden revolution is expected in the production of pulses.

Question 5.
Find out the correct sentence.
(i) Hybridisation means crossing between genetically dissimilar plants.
(ii) Cross between two varieties is called as interspecific hybridisation.
(iii) Introducing genes of desired character into a plant gives genetically modified crop.
(iv) Cross between plants of two species is called as intervarietal hybridisation.
(a) (i) and (iii)
(b) (ii) and (iv)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
Solution:
(a) The process of crossing two genetically dissimilar plants to produce a hybrid having good traits of both is called i hybridisation. The crossing may be intervarietal (between different varieties), intergeneric (between different genera), inter-specific (between different species of the same genus). Genetically modified crops are produced by the insertion of genes of desired traits.

Question 6.
Weeds affect the crop plants by
(a) killing of plants in field before they grow
(b) dominating the plants to grow
(c) competing for various resources of crops (plants) causing low availability of nutrients
(d) all of the above.
Solution:
(d) A plant species growing spontaneously in the cultivated field is called a weed. Weeds damage our crop plants, by competing with ’ them for space, water, light and nutrients. Weeds grow very fast.

Question 7.
Which one of the following species of honey bee is an Italian species?
(a) Apis dorsata
(b) Apis florae
(c) Apis cerana indica
(d) Apis mellifera
Solution:
(d) In India, both local varieties (indigenous) as well as exotic varieties are used for commerical production of honey. The local varieties are Apis cerana indica (Indian bee), dorsata (Rock bee) and A. florea (Little bee). The exotic variety used for honey production is Apis mellifera (Italian bee).

Question 8.
Find out the correct sentence about manure.
(i) Manure contains large quantities of organic matter and small quantities of nutrients.
(ii) It increases the water holding capacity of sandy soil.
(iii) It helps in draining out of excess of water from clayey soil.
(iv) Its excessive use pollutes environment because it is made of animal excretory waste.
(a) (i) and (iii)
(b) (i) and (ii)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
Solution:
(b) Manures are the natural fertilisers. They are prepared by the decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste. They are bulky sources of organic matter, which supply nutrients in small quantities, but organic matter in large quantities. The examples of manure are farmyard manure (FYM), compost, vermicompost, etc. Manures enrich the soil with nutrients and replenish the general deficiency of nutrients in the soil. Manures add organic matter (called humus) to soil, which restores the soil texture for better retention of water and for aeration of soil. It increases the water holding capacity in sandy soils and drainage in clayey soil. They also avoid water – logging in clayey soils. Manures protect our environment from synthetic chemicals.

Question 9.
Cattle husbandry is done for the following purposes
(i) Milk Production
(ii) Agricultural work
(iii) Meat production
(iv) Egg production
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (iii) and (iv)
(d) (i) and (iv)
Solution:
(a) The branch of agriculture that deals with the feeding, caring and, breeding of domestic animals is called animal husbandry. Human beings domesticate cattle for milk, meat, leather, transportation and draught purposes.

Question 10.
Which of the following are Indian cattle?
(i) Bos indicus
(ii) Bos domestica
(iii) Bos bubalis
(iv) Bos vulgaris
(a) (i) and (iii)
(b) (i) and (ii)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
Solution:
(a) Generic name of cow (cattle) is Bos indicus. It is adapted for the drier regions of the country such as Gujarat and Rajasthan. Buffalo is commonly called Indian water buffalo, its generic name is Bos bubalis.

Question 11.
Which of the following are exotic breeds?
(i) Brawn
(ii) Jersey
(iii) Brown Swiss
(iv) Jersey Swiss
(a) (i) and (iii)
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iv)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
Solution:
(b) Exotic breeds are the breeds which have been imported from abroad and reared in India. Exotic breeds of cow are jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss.

Question 12.
Poultry farming is undertaken to raise following
(i) Egg production
(ii) Feather production
(iii) Chicken meat
(iv) Milk production
(a) (i) and (Iii)
(b) (i) and (ii)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
Solution:
(a) Poultry industry deals with production of domesticated fowl for meat and eggs. The common poultry birds are chicken, turkey, duck, geese, guinea-fowl and pigeon. Eggs and high quality meat obtained from poultry gives us a balanced diet and serves as a cheap source of animal protein.

Question 13.
Poultry fowl are susceptible to the following pathogens
(a) Viruses
(b) Bacteria
(c) Fungi
(d) All of the above
Solution:
(d) Poultry fowl suffer from various diseases caused by viruses (Ranikhet, Fowl pox), bacteria (tuberculosis, cholera), fungi (Aspergillosis) and parasites (worms, mites) etc.

Question 14.
Which one of the following fishes is a surface feeder?
(a) Rohus
(b) Mrigals
(c) Common carps
(d) Catlas
Solution:
(d) Rohu (Labeo rohita) is a column feeder. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are! bottom feeders. Catla (Catla catla) is surface feeder.

Question 15.
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of
(i) animal breeding
(ii) culture of animals
(iii) animal livestock
(iv) rearing of animals
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(d) (i), (iii) and (iv)
Solution:
(d) Animal husbandry is the farming or mangement of animal livestock which includes, various aspects such as animal’s shelter, feeding, breeding, health and disease control.

Question 16.
Which one of the following nutrients is not available in fertilisers?
(a) Nitrogen
(b) Phosphorus
(c) Iron
(d) Potassium
Solution:
(c) A chemical fertiliser is a salt or an organic compound containing the necessary plant nutrients. They provide nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to the plants.

Question 17.
Preventive and control measures adopted for the storage of grains include
(a) strict cleaning
(b) proper disjoining
(c) fumigation
(d) all of the above
(d) Biotic and abiotic factors, which cause destruction of grains during storage can be prevented by following methods:

1. Cleaning of the produce before storage : The grains and other agricultural produce should be properly cleaned and dried in sun before their storage.
2. Safe and proper storage : Godown, ware houses and stores should be properly cleaned, dried and repaired. The bags of grains should be properly disjointed i.e., should not be cluttered at a place to provide proper areation.
3. Fumigation : Chemical pesticides are used as fumigants. These fumes kill the insect pests and other harmful pathogens.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 18.
Match the column A with the column B.

Solution:
(a) (ii)
(b) (iii)
(c) (i)
(d) (iv)

Question 19.
Fill in the blanks.
(a) Pigeon pea is a good source of ______.
(b) Berseem is an important ______crop.
(c) The crops which are grown in rainy season are called ______crops.
(d) ______are rich in vitamins.
(e) ______crop grows in winter season.
Solution:
(a) protein
(b) fodder
(c) kharif
(d) Vegetables
(d) Rabi

Question 20.
What is a GM crop? Name any one such crop
which is grown in India.
Solution:
GM crops are the crops which are
developed by introducing a new gene from any other source e.g. bacteria or any other organism. Bt cotton is an example of GM crop which is made insect-resistant by introducing gene from the bacteria.

Question 21.
List out some useful traits in improved crop.
Solution:
Some of the useful traits in improved crops are:

1. Higher yield: The main aim of crop improvement is to improve the productivity 1 of economic produce, e.g., grain, vegetables and fodder.
2. Biotic and abiotic resistance: Under different situations crop suffers due to biotic | (diseases, insect-pest infestations) and abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, water logging, heat, cold and frost). Developing the crop varieties resistant to such stress will significantly improve the crop production. For example, MUW 318 is a variety of wheat which is resistant to all the rusts.
3. Photo-insensitivity and thermo – insenstivity: Most of the’ plants are sensitive to certain abiotic factors like light and temperature. Development of photo-insensitive and thermo-insensitive crop varieties will help in crossing the cultivation t boundries.
4. Wider adaptability: Developing the crop varieties with wider adaptability will help in stabilising the crop production under different environmental conditions. For examples, ICPH8 is a hybrid pigeon pea plant which takes a short duration to mature and performs well under drought as well as high moisture conditions.

Question 22.
Why is organic matter important for crop production?
Solution:
Organic matter is very much important for enhancement in food production. Organic matter is added in the form of manures to the crop. The organic matter enriches the soil with nutrients and replenish the general deficiency of nutrients in the soil. It also water and for aeration of soil. For example, the organic matter present in the manures increases the water holding capacity in sandy soils and drainage in clayey soil. It also avoids water logging in clayey soils. The organic matter also provides food for soil organisms (decomposers, such as bacteria, fungi, etc.) which in turn help in making nutrients available to plants.

Thus, organic manures help to improve the physical properties of soil, reduce soil erosion, increase the moisture holding capacity of soil and are also low cost nutrient carriers.

Question 23.
Why is excess use of fertilisers detrimental for environment?
Solution:
Excessive use of fertilisers have various deleterious effects on the environment.

1. Fertilisers change soil chemistry: Excessive use of fertilisers in long run degrades quality of soil and disturbs the ecosystem. The unused part of the fertiliser makes the soil either alkaline or acidic, depending upon its nature.
2. Fertilisers cause water pollution : High doses of these chemicals get washed off through irrigation and rainfall as drainage and reach rivers, lakes, streams and other water bodies and pollute them. In the water bodies, these salts increase the growth of algae (algal bloom). The algae deoxygenates the water, making it unfit for aquatic animals.

Question 24.
Give one word for the following.
(a) Farming without the use of chemicals as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides is known as ______.
(b) Growing of wheat and groundnut on the same field is called as ______.
(c) Planting soyabean and maize in alternate rows in the same field is called as ______.
(d) Growing different crops on a piece of land in pre-planned succession is known as ______.
(e) Xanfhium and Parthenium are commonly known as ______.
(f) Causal organism of any disease is called as
Solution:
(a) organic farming
(b) mixed cropping
(c) intercropping
(d) crop rotation
(e) weeds
(f) pathogen

Question 25.
Match the following A and B.

Solution:
(a) (iii)
(b) (v)
(c) (iv)
(d) (i)
(e) (ii)

Question 26.
If there is low rainfall in a village throughout the year, what measures will you suggest to the farmers for better cropping?
Solution:
Poor rainfall pose a threat to the productivity of rain fed crops.

• These crops then need supply of water from external sources. Under such conditions various irrigation systems can be adopted to supply water from different water resources. Some of irrigation methods like sprinkler, drip and surface irrigation can be used that reduces the water wastage and supply the required amount of water.
• Drought resistant and early maturing varieties of crops should be cultivated that have less water requirement.
• Soil should be enriched with more humus content so as to increase the water holding capacity as it retains water for longer duration.

Question 27.
Group the following and tabulate them as energy yielding, protein yielding, oil yielding and fodder crop.
Wheat, rice, berseem, maize, gram, oats, pigeon gram, sudan grass, lentil, soyabean, groundnut, castor and mustard.
Solution:
The given crops can be grouped into the following categories:

1. Energy-yielding:
   • Wheat
   • Rice
   • Maize
2. Protein yielding:
   • Gram
   • Pigeongram
   • Lentil
   • Soybean
3. Oil-yielding:
   • Groundnut
   • Castor Mustard
   • Soybean
4. Fodder crops:
   • Sudangrass
   • Berseem
   • Oat

Question 28.
Define the term hybridisation and photoperiod.
Solution:
Hybridisation: Hybridisation can be defined as a crossing between genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new kind (hybrid). This method incorporates the desired (good) characteristics of both parents in one variety. The crossing may be intervarietal, intergeneric or interspecific.

Photoperiod: Period of illumination for a flower or plant is termed as photoperiod. Plant’s response to relative lengths of day light and darkness. Flowering plants can be classified as Day neutral, Long day or Short day plants according to the photoperiod in which they flower.

Question 29.
Fill in the blanks.
(a) Photoperiod affect the ______.
(b) Kharif crops are cultivated from ______to ______.
(c) Rabi crops are cultivated from ______to ______.
(d) Paddy, maize, green gram and black gram are ______ crops.
(e) Wheat, gram, pea, mustard are ______crops.
Solution:
(a) flowering of plants
(b) June, October
(c) November, April
(d) Kharif
(e) Rabi

Question 30.
Cultivation practices and crop yield are related to environmental condition. Explain.
Solution:
Cultivation practices and crops yield are related to environmental condition. Various crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and photoperiod, for their growth and completion of life cycle. On the basis of seasonal variations, crops in India can be classified into three main groups :

• Rabi crop: It is a winter season crop grown from November to April.
• Kharif crop: It is a rainy season crop grown from June to October.
• Zaid crop: It is a summer season crop grown from April to June.

Question 31.
Fill in the blanks.
(a) A total of ______ nutrients are essential to plants.
(b) ______ and ______are supplied by air to plants.
(c) ______ is supplied by water to plants.
(d) Soil supplies ______nutrients to plants.
(e) ______ nutrients are required in large quantity and called as .
(f) ______ nutrients are needed in small quantity for plants and are called ______.
Solution:
(a) 16
(b) Carbon, oxygen
(c) Hydrogen .
(d) 13
(e) Six, macronutrients
(f) Seven, micronutrients

Question 32.
Differentiate between compost and vermi- compost?
Solution:
Compost:

1. Compost is prepared from farm and town refuse such as vegetable and animal refuse, faecal matter of human beings, weeds, straw, rice husks, forest litter, etc. It is a biological process in which both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms decompose the organic matter.
2. It takes about 3 to 6 months for decomposition of organic refuse.

Vermicompost:

1. Vermicompost is the degradation of organic waste through the consumption by earthworms.
2. It takes about 1-2 months to prepare a vermicompost.

Question 33.
Arrange these statements in correct sequence of preparation of green manure.
(a) Green plants are decomposed in soil.
(b) Green plants are cultivated for preparing manure or crop plant parts are used.
(c) Plants are ploughed and mixed into the soil.
(d) After decomposition it becomes green manure.
Solution:
(b) Green plants are cultivated for preparing manure or crop plant parts are used.
(c) Plants are ploughed and mixed into the soil.
(a) Green plants are decomposed in soil.
(d) After decomposition it becomes green manure. For preparing the manure, green manure crops are cultivated in the field for about 6 to 8 weeks and mulched and ploughed into field in the tender stage, i.e., at flowering stage. These buried crops get decomposed before sowing of next crop and becomes a green manure.

Question 34.
An Italian bee variety A. mellifera has been introduced in India for honey production. Write about its merits over other varieties.
Solution:
For the production of honey on the commercial basis, Italian variety of honey bee, Apis mellifera is commonly used throughout the country. This variety has been domesticated in India due to its various desirable good characters such as gentleness in nature, good honey collection capacity, prolific queen production with less swarming and a good ability to protect itself from enemies.

Question 35.
ln agricultural practices, higher input gives higher yield. Discuss how?
Solution:
In agricultural practices, higher inputs give higher yield. Higher inputs in the form of sowing of seeds of improved variety, application of better manures and fertiliser, proper spraying of pesticides and weedicides, improved threshing and harvesting of crops leads to increase in crop productivity. This also means the higher money inputs to raise the yield. Financial condition of farmers allow them to take up different farming practices and technologies. The farmer’s purchasing capacity for input decides cropping system and production practices.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 36.
Discuss the role of hybridisation in crop improvement.
Solution:
The crossing between genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new kind (hybrid) is called hybridisation. Crossing may be between two different varieties (intervarietal), between two different species (interspecific) and between different genera (intergeneric).

Cross-breeding of two varieties of plants is carried out to obtain an improved variety of plants which will combine in it both the desired characteristics of parent crop plants. For example, the new improved variety of crop plants, thus obtained will give high yield of food grains and it will be disease resistant too. This process of cross breeding of different plants to obtain a new improved variety of crops is called hybridisation.

Selection and hybridisation are often combined in breeding. In India crops are grown in diverse types of soil and different climatic conditions by poor to progressive farmers. Keeping in mind climatic factors, input application, disease and pest resistance, quality and adaptability etc. a large number of varieties have been developed by hybridisation. Such varieties are high- yielding, resistant to diseases and pests, have better quality and early to late maturing time.

Question 37.
Define
(i) Vermicompost
(ii) Green manure
(iii) Biofertiliser
Solution:
(i) Vermicompost
Vermicompost is a kind of manure, rich in organic matter and nutrients, which is derived from organic wastes of plant and animal origin by the activity of earthworms. The latter promotes soil aeration, crush and mix soil particles and convert the nutrients into simpler forms.
The earthworms are popularly known as farmer’s friend or Nature’s ploughman. Most common species of earthworm used for decomposition are Dichogaster bolani.

(ii) Green manure
Green manure is a kind of manure which is prepared in the field itself to enrich the soil in nitrogen and phosphorous. Green leguminous and non-leguminous plants are mulched by ploughing and then left in the field to decompose by activity of natural decomposers such as bacteria and fungi. The most commonly used green manure in India are — sun hemp, sweet clover, cow-pea, berseem, cluster bean etc.

(iii) Biofertilisers
Organisms which enrich the soil with nutrients are called biofertilisers. Biofertilisers are used for the specific crop plants such as pulses, legumes, oil seeds and rice. Biofertilisers are renewable and non-pollutant sources of plant nutrients such as nitrogen. They are not alternatives to chemical fertilisers but can play a supplementary role in supplying nitrogen to specific crops under specific soil conditions.

Two biofertilisers, Rhizobium and blue green algae (Nostoc and Anabaena) are being used in cultivating pulses, legumes, oil seeds and wet-land rice.
Some of the biofertilisers are given below :

• Legume (Rhizobium symbiosis).
• Azolla (Anabaena symbiosis).
• Free-living bacteria (Azotobacter) living in soil.
• Cyanobacteria (Anabaena, Nostoc).
• Mycorrhiza (symbiotic association of fungi with roots of higher plants).

Question 38.
Discuss various methods for weed control.
Solution:
An unwanted plant species growing spontaneously at a habitat (or in the cultivated field) is called a weed. Weeds damage our crop plants, by competing with them for space, water, light and nutrients. Some of the important weeds of our crop fields are Parthenium (gajar ghas), Xanthium (gokhroo), Cyprus rotundus (motha) etc. The overall loss caused by weeds in India had been estimated at 27% of field crop production. Therefore, eradication of weeds from crop fields during the early stage of crop growth is our prime concern. Some of the most commonly used methods of weed control are :

1. Hand pulling: Individual weed plants are pulled by hand.
2. Tillage: Tillage is mechanical agitation of soil by over turning etc. destruction of weeds and reduction of their seeds in the soil is called tillage.
3. Mowing: Mowing of field also prevents seed production of weeds and removes weed growth.
4. Flooding: Flooding of fields after harvesting is a popular method for controlling perennial weeds.
5. Cropping and competition method : Weeds are also controlled by proper seed bed preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping, crop rotation, summer ploughing, adopting most effective methods of irrigation and application of fertilisers. Thus, crop plants better compete with the weeds and restrict their growth.
6. Use of chemical herbicides: An enormous variety of chemical compounds have been synthesised, tested for herbicidial activity and the successful ones have been applied to the fields.

Question 39.
Differentiate between the following:
(i) Capture fishery and Culture fishery
(ii) Mixed cropping and Inter cropping
(iii) Bee keeping and Poultry farming
Solution: (i)

Question 40.
Give the merits and demerits offish culture
Solution:
Culture fishery is a kind of business and research activity concerned with the culturing, feeding, breeding and production of fishes in marine and fresh water ecosystem. The basic advantage (merit) of fish culture is that it decreases our dependence on natural sources of fish. We can obtain fish of desired species in desired numbers by aclturing them.
Some merits of culture fishery are :

1.  Fish as food : Various species of fishes are cultivated extensively as food. Some of the species grown are rohu, mrigal, catla etc.
2.  Fish for controlling diseases: Various fish species are, reared to control diseases like malaria, yellow fever etc. The larvivorous fishes like Gambusia are reared which eat up the larvae of mosquito and prevent the spreading of disease.
3. Economic value: Besides fishes, various oysters are also reared in culture fishery. These oysters are cultivalted for pearls they make, which are of high economic importance.
4. Source of income : The fishing industry has brought a lot of income to the farmers in particular and the country on the whole. Blue Revolution is also gaining popularity on the same lines as “green revolution’.
5. Fishes are also reared for other by-products like fish oil, manure, glue, leather etc. Thus, fish farming is advantageous, economical and profitable from business point of view. There are, however certain problems or demerits associated with fash farming/culture fishery. They are :

• It poses a threat to biodiversity. Only economically important and valued fishes are grown ( fish monoculture) which leads to extinction of rare and economically less important fishes.
•  Sometimes, such exotic species are introduced which cause extinction of local fish species.

Question 41.
What do you understand by composite fish culture?
Solution:
Practice of culturing a combination of five or six species of fish in a single fish pond is termed as composite fish culture. Selection of several species of fish for culturing in a pond helps to enhance yield with same cost and to utilise most of the available food in the water reservoir.
Fishes are selected on the basis of following characteristics.
(i) The selected species are fast growing. For example, when common Indian carps (rohu, catla and mrigal) and exotic carps (silver carp, grass carp and common carp) are selected for culturing, they give 8-9 times more yield.

(ii) The fishes selected should not compete with each other for space and nutrition. They should live in distinct zones inside the pond. For example, catla and silver carp live mostly in surface zone, rohu and grass carp live in middle zone and mrigal and common carp live at the bottom.

(iii) The feeding habits of species selected should be distinct. For example, silver carp feeds on phytoplanktons, catla feeds on zooplanktons, rohu and mrigal feed on decaying plants and detritus, grass carp feeds on aquatic plants and weeds. Thus, they can be grown together.
Composite fish farming is advantageous, economical and profitable from business point of view.

Question 42.
Why bee keeping should be done in good pasturage?
Solution:
Bee keeping also called apiculture is an important enterprise of agriculture and is concerned with commercial production of honey and wax.
As honey bees feeds on flowers for collecting nectar, which is eventually converted into honey, availability of flowering plants in the vicinity is a major factor in bee keeping.

In fact, the taste of honey depends upon the type of flowers, available. Pasturage refers to theland area covered with flowering plants which are available for collection of nectar and pollen. It plays an important role in the quantity and quality of honey. Mostly, bee farms or apiaries are estabilished in good and desirable locations where abundance of flowering plants (flora) is available in 1 to 2 kms radius for nectar and pollen collection.

Question 43.
Write the modes by which insects affect the crop yield.
Solution:
Insects affect the crop yields in both useful and harmful ways. Harmful insects attack the plants and are called insect pests. Insect pests are of following types :
Chewing insects : Insect pests of this category cut the roots, stem and leaves with the help of their chewing mouth parts. They chew and swallow the pieces of plant parts. E.g., grasshoppers, caterpillars, locusts etc.
Sucking insects : These insects puncture the plant parts and suck the cell sap with the help of their needle like hollow beaks. E.g., leaf hoppers, aphids, bugs, etc.
Internal feeders : These insects bore into stem and fruits. They live inside the plant parts and harm the crop yield. E.g., weevils, borers, etc.
Every year Insect pests cause a significant damage to the crops and thereby reduce the productivity. Various methods like use of chemical pesticides, natural insecticides like neem, nicotine etc. and various biological methods are employed to control the pest infestation and reduce the damage done by them. Useful insects are those which assist in pollination thus, ensure fruit formation and those which feed on harmful)nsect pests. E.g., lady bird beetle feeds on aphids thus controls this pest.

Question 44.
Discuss why pesticides are used in very accurate concentration and in very appropriate manner?
Solution:
The chemicals used to eliminate pests are called pesticides. Pesticides include insecticides (for killing insects), weedicides (killing weeds), rodenticides (for killing rats), fungicides (killing fungi) etc. Pesticides are used in very accurate concentration and in
very appropriate manner because excessive and regular use of these chemicals is not only hazardous, contaminates food and water but also affects the quality of produce which adversely affects the health of consumers.
These pesticides should be used in accurate concentration because they have harmful effects on the environment also. They are non-biodegradable and once they enter the food chain they go on accumulating in the trophic level, a phenomenon called biomagnification. Such an accumulation of pesticides may be poisonous to both plants and animal species. Moreover, the runoff from fields carry pesticides into the water bodies. These have adverse effect on the aquatic animals and may cause their death also.

Question 45.
Name two types of animal feed and write their functions.
Solution:
The food required by dairy animals is called feed. The dairy animals must get adequate, palatable, laxative, appetising and balanced ration with sufficient greens and ’ all nutrient in appropriate amounts. Large quantity of water is also required for milk production.
Two types of normal feed for dairy animals are :
(i) Roughage
(ii) Concentrates ‘
Roughage: This part of cattle feed contains mostly fibres which come from hay (straw of cereals or Bhusa), green fodder (cow pea, berseem etc.) and silage.
Concentrates: These are mixtures of substances containing less fibres and relatively excessive amount of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals etc. – A balanced ration containing all nutrients in proper amounts plus sufficient water must be offered to dairy animals at frequent intervals. Besides this, various additives which contain micronutrients, antibiotics etc. must also be given to cattle to promote their milk production.

Question 46.
What would happen if poultry birds are larger in size and have no summer adaptation capacity? In order to get small sized poultry birds, having summer adaptability, what method will be employed?
Solution:
Following difficulties will be faced for
rearing up of large size fowls that are unable to adapt during summers :
(i) Large sized fowls cannot be raised as broilers, asi broiler chicks should be dwarf (small sized) so that they yield more and consume less.
(ii) As the birds are unable to adapt in summer their efficiency will be hampered during high temperature conditions (summers). More expenditure needs to be done on their maintenence and providing them suitable conditions for increasing their productivity. Cross breeding methods should be employed for production of small sized species which are well adapted to summer conditions. Various cross breeding programmes between desi (indigenous) and exotic (foreign) breeds are being carried out for the production of cross breeds with desirable traits. Other desired traits besides temperature adaptability and dwarf size are as follows :
(i) They should require less expenditure for their maintenance.
(ii) The cross breeds should lay more number of eggs and produce good quality chicks.

Question 47.
Suggest some preventive measures for the diseases of poultry birds.
Solution:
The poultry birds suffer from various diseases caused by viruses (flu, dermatitis, fowl pox, ranikhet disease), bacteria (tuberculosis, cholera, diarrhoea), fungi (aspergillosis), and also parasites (worms, mites, lice), etc.
These diseases reduce the bird growth, decrease egg production, decrease fertility and may even cause death.
Following are some preventive measures for diseases of poultry bird :
(i) Disease-free chicks should be raised in proper sanitary conditions^ from healthy parents.
(ii) Poultry house should cleaned and disinfected by spraying disinfectants at regular intervals.
(iii) Fresh and balanced feed should be given to the birds to avoid nutritional diseases.
(iv) Overcrowding of birds, ill ventilation and dampness should be avoided to prevent the spreading of disease.
(v) Newly hatched chicks should be vaccinated in time. Vaccination prevents the occurrence of infectious diseases and reduces loss of poultry during an ou tbreak of disease.

Question 48.
Figure15.1 shows the two crop fields [Plots A and B] have been treated by manures and chemical fertilisers respectively, keeping other environmental factors same. Observe the graph and answer the following questions.
(i) Why does plot B show sudden increase and then gradual decrease in yield?
(ii) Why is the highest peak in plot A graph slightly delayed?
(iii) What is the reason for the different pattern

(i) In plot B, chemical fertilisers were added. With the addition of chemical fertilisers the yield of the crop increased initially, but with continued use of chemical fertilisers the crop yield decreased significantly. This happened because chemical fertilisers are nutrient specific and give only short-term benefits. Their prolonge use destroys the soil fertility and cause a gradual decline in the crop production.

(ii) In plot A manures were used to improve the soil fertility. Manures are rich source of organic matter and release nutrients slow in comparison to the fertilities. Therefore the highest peak in plot of graph slightly delayed. Manures enrich the soil with nutrients and organic matter, which further increases the soil fertility. Manure also improve the soil structure. Addition of manures into the soil have long term benefits and improve the soil fertility which considerably increased the crop yield.

(iii) Manures are natural ways of enriching the soil with organic nutrients, whereas chemical fertilisers are chemicals that enrich the soil with a particular elements. Fertilisers have adverse effect on soil fertility as their prolonged use can kill the useful microorganisms present in the soil and ultimately make the soil unfit for sustaining plant life and their prolonged effects include reduction in crop productivity.
Manures, on the other hand improves the soil fertility by adding organic nutrients to the soil and their prolonged use will cause the crop production to increase.

Question 49.
Complete the crossword puzzle (Fig.15.2).

Across
1. Oil yielding plant (9)
3. Crop grown in winter season (4)
5. Fixed by Rhizobium (8)
9. Common honey bee (4) Downward
2. Animal feed (6)
4. A micronutrient (5)
6. Unwanted plant in crop fields (4)
7. An exotic breed of chicken (7)
8. Bottom feeders in fish pond (7)
10. A marine fish (4)
Solution:
Across
1. SUN FLOWER
3. RABI
5. NITROGEN
9. APIS Downward
2. FODDER
4. BORON
6. WEED
7. LEGHORN
8. MRIGALA
10. TUNA

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CBSE Class 7 Hindi पत्र लेखन Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 7 Hindi पत्र लेखन.

CBSE Class 7 Hindi पत्र लेखन

पत्र-लेखन का हमारे जीवन में काफ़ी महत्त्व है, किंतु आजकल टेलीफ़ोन, मोबाइल व कंप्यूटर के बढ़ते प्रयोग से पत्र लिखने का चलन कुछ कम हो गया है। फिर भी किसी सरकारी विभाग से अपनी समस्या की शिकायत करनी हो, कहीं से कोई आवश्यक वस्तु मँगवानी हो अथवा विवाह या किसी सरकारी विभाग से अपनी समस्या की शिकायत करनी हो, कहीं से कोई आवश्यक वस्तु मँगवानी हो अथवा विवाह या किसी अन्य उत्सव कार्यक्रम के लिए अपने प्रियजनों को आमंत्रित करना हो, तब हमें पत्र लिखने की आवश्यकता होती है। अतः पत्र-लेखन आज के युग में उपयोगी है। पत्र लिखते समय निम्नलिखित बातों का ध्यान रखना चाहिए

• पत्र की भाषा सरल व स्पष्ट हो। हमें विस्तृत वर्णन से बचना चाहिए।
• आयु व संबंध के अनुकूल शब्दावली का प्रयोग करना चाहिए।
• विचारों की क्रमबद्धता का ध्यान रखना चाहिए। पत्र का उद्देश्य व विषय-वस्तु स्पष्ट होनी चाहिए। पत्र में उसके सभी अंगों का प्रयोग करना चाहिए।

पत्रों के प्रकार
पत्र मुख्यतः दो प्रकार के होते हैं।

1. अनौपचारिक या निजी पत्र – ये पत्र अपने निकट संबंधियों अथवा मित्रों को लिखे जाते हैं। इनमें निजी बातों का ब्योरा (वर्णन) होता है।
2. औपचारिक पत्र – ये पत्र उन्हें लिखे जाते हैं जिससे हमारा निजी संबंध नहीं होता। ये कई प्रकार के हो सकते हैं; जैसे-प्रार्थना
पत्र, कार्यालयी-पत्र, व्यावसायिक-पत्र आदि।
प्रार्थना पत्र – प्रधानाचार्य को आवेदन के लिए लिखे जाने वाले पत्र।।
कार्यालयी पत्र – किसी सरकारी अधिकारी, विभाग को लिखे गए पत्र आदि।
व्यावसायिक पत्र – दुकानदार, प्रकाशक, व्यापारी, कंपनी आदि को लिखे गए पत्र आदि।

पत्र के आठ मुख्य अंग होते हैं

1. प्रेषक का पता
2. तिथि
3. संबोधन
4. अभिवादन
5. विषयवस्तु
6. समाप्ति
7. हस्ताक्षर
8. पता

अनौपचारिक पत्र का प्रारूप

औपचारिक पत्र का प्रारूप

प्रार्थना-पत्र
प्रधानाचार्य को लिखे जाने वाले पत्र का प्रारूप

औपचारिक पत्र

1. छात्रवृत्ति के लिए प्रधानाचार्य को प्रार्थना पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
केंद्रीय विद्यालय
कालिंदी विहार, नई दिल्ली।

विषय – छात्रवृत्ति हेतु प्रार्थना पत्र

महोदय
सविनय निवेदन यह है कि मैं आपके विद्यालय में कक्षा सातवीं ‘ए’ की छात्रा हूँ। मेरे पिता जी की आर्थिक स्थिति अच्छी नहीं है। वे विद्यालय के शुल्क तथा अन्य खर्चे का भार उठा पाने में असमर्थ हैं। मैं अपनी पिछली कक्षाओं में प्रथम स्थान प्राप्त करती रही हूँ तथा खेल-कूद व अन्य प्रतियोगिताओं में भी मैंने अनेक पदक प्राप्त किए हैं।

अतः आप से अनुरोध है कि मुझे विद्यालय के छात्रवृत्ति कोष से छात्रवृत्ति प्रदान करने का कष्ट करें, ताकि मैं अपनी पढ़ाई जारी रख सकें। मैं सदैव आपकी आभारी रहूँगी।

आपकी आज्ञाकारी शिष्या,
नेहा तिवारी
कक्षा-सातवीं ‘ए’
दिनांक…….

2. बड़े भाई के विवाह में शामिल होने के लिए चार दिन के अवकाश के लिए अपने प्रधानाचार्य को प्रार्थना पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
डी० ए० वी० स्कूल
सेक्टर-5 द्वारका
नई दिल्ली-110075

महोदय

सविनय निवेदन यह है कि मेरे बड़े भाई का शुभ विवाह 15 मार्च, 20XX को होना निश्चित हुआ है। विवाहोत्सव में मेरा उपस्थित होना आवश्यक है। अतः मैं दिनांक 13 मार्च 20XX से 16 मार्च 20XX तक विद्यालय में उपस्थित नहीं हो सकेंगा। अतः आपसे अनुरोध है कि मुझे इन चार दिनों का अवकाश प्रदान करने की कृपा करें।

धन्यवाद
आपका आज्ञाकारी शिष्य
आयुष रंजन
कक्षा-सात (बी)
अनुक्रमांक-15

3. गंदगी की सूचना देते हुए नगर निगम अधिकारी को प्रत्र।

B-4/13 अंकुर विहार, लोनी
गाजियाबाद।
दिनांक-16 अगस्त
सेवा में
नगर निगम अधिकारी
लोनी क्षेत्र, गाजियाबाद।

विषय-हमारे क्षेत्र में फैली गंदगी की सूचना हेतु पत्र।

महोदय
मैं अंकुर तथा आसपास के इलाकों में फैली गंदगी तथा सफ़ाई कर्मचारियों की अकर्मण्यता के विषय में आपको सूचित करना चाहता हूँ।

यहाँ जगह-जगह गंदगी के ढेर लगे हैं तथा गलियों में यहाँ-वहाँ कूड़ा फैला है। सफ़ाई कर्मचारी सप्ताह में एक बार भी सफ़ाई नहीं करते तथा नगर निगम की गाड़ियाँ महीनों तक दिखाई नहीं पड़तीं। चारों तरफ़ मक्खी, मच्छर तथा बदबू का साम्राज्य है।
आशा है आप इस विषय में अवश्य कार्यवाही करेंगे।

धन्यवाद
भवदीय
ओजस्व तिवारी।

4. अपने क्षेत्र में बढ़ते अपराधों की समस्या के बारे में सूचना देते हुए थानाध्यक्ष को पत्र लिखिए।

16 ए हौज खास, नई दिल्ली
दिनांक 25 जुलाई ……….
सेवा में
थाना अध्यक्ष
हौज खास

विषय – बढ़ते हुए अपराधों की समस्या के समाधान हेतु पत्र।

मान्यवर
मैं हौज खास क्षेत्र में लगातार बढ़ रहे अपराधों की ओर आपका ध्यान आकर्षित करना चाहता हूँ। पिछले दो महीने में हमारे क्षेत्र में चार चोरियाँ व दो हत्याएँ हो चुकी हैं। छोटी-मोटी राहजनी की घटनाएँ तो अब आम हो गई हैं। राह चलती महिलाओं के पर्स, चेन आदि मोटरसाइकिल सवार दिन-दहाड़े लूटकर ले जाते हैं। पुलिस की गश्त करने वाली वैन सड़क पर दूर-दूर तक दिखाई नहीं देती। सिपाही गश्त पर नहीं आते। इस वजह से अपराधियों के हौंसले दिन-प्रतिदिन बढ़ते ही जा रहे हैं।

अतः आपसे अनुरोध है कि इन अपराधों की रोकथाम के लिए जल्द से जल्द कार्यवाही करें, ताकि इस क्षेत्र के निवासी निश्चित होकर जी सकें और सड़कों पर चल सकें। आशा है कि आप मेरे अनुरोध पर ध्यान देंगे और कोई ठोस कदम उठाएँगे।

धन्यवाद
भवदीय
रजत कुमार

5. पुस्तक मँगवाने के लिए पुस्तक-विक्रेता को पत्र लिखिए।

प्रेषक
आयुष
B-2/13 अंकुर विहार, लोनी
गाजियाबाद।
दिनांक-25 जून 20XX

सेवा में
व्यवस्थापक
फ्रैंक एजुकेशनल एड्स प्रा० लि०
ए-39 नोएडा, उत्तर प्रदेश।
पिन-201301

महोदय
मुझे निम्नलिखित पुस्तकें वी०पी०पी० से भेजने की कृपा करें। मैं पाँच सौ रुपए का बैंक ड्राफ्ट अग्रिम राशि के रूप में संलग्न कर रहा हूँ।

पुस्तकें भेजते समय कृपया इस बात का ध्यान रखें कि पुस्तकें नई संस्करण की हों तथा कटी-फटी न हों। पुस्तकों पर उचित कमीशन देते हुए पुस्तक भेजने की कृपा करें।
पुस्तकों के नाम-मधुरिमा हिंदी रीडर भाग-7
E.V.S. Part-7
हिंदी व्याकरण-7
Social Science भाग-7

प्रत्येक की एक-एक प्रति भिजवाएँ।

भवदीय
आयुष रंजन

अनौपचारिक पत्र

1. पुस्तक खरीदने के लिए रुपये भेजने का अनुरोध करते हुए अपने पिता जी को पत्र लिखिए।

कमरा संख्या-85
सरस्वती छात्रावास
गुमानपुरा कोटा,
राजस्थान
दिनांक 5 अगस्त 20XX

पूज्य पिता जी
चरण स्पर्श
मेरी प्रथम सत्र की परीक्षा समाप्त हो चुकी है। सभी विषयों के अंक प्राप्त हो गए हैं। मुझे लगभग 90% अंक मिले हैं। मुझे और परिश्रम करना होगा। मुझे और अधिक अंक प्राप्त करने हैं।

आपने इस महीने जो रुपए भेजे थे, वे परीक्षा शुल्क जमा कराने में खर्च हो गए। मुझे कुछ सहायक पुस्तकें खरीदनी हैं, इसलिए आपसे निवेदन है कि इस पत्र के मिलते ही मुझे आप 2000 रुपए और भेज दें ताकि मैं शीघ्र पुस्तकें खरीद सकें। पूज्य माता जी से सादर चरण-स्पर्श कहिएगा।

नेहा को असीम प्यार।
आपका आज्ञाकारी पुत्र
रजत,
अंकुर विहार लोनी

2. अपनी सहेली को उसके जन्म दिन पर न पहुँच पाने का कारण बताते हुए पत्र लिखिए।

परीक्षा भवन
नई दिल्ली
दिनांक 22 अप्रैल 20XX

प्रिय अंशु
मधुर स्मृतियाँ
मैं सपरिवार यहाँ सकुशल हूँ और ईश्वर से तुम्हारे परिवार की कुशलता की प्रार्थना करती हैं। पिछले महीने की 22 तारीख को तुम्हारा जन्मदिन था। तुमने बड़े प्यार से मुझे निमंत्रित भी किया था, परंतु मैं तुम्हारे जन्म दिन में नहीं आ सकी। इसका मुझे बहुत अफसोस है। मुझे पता है कि तुम मुझसे बहुत नाराज़ हो, इसलिए तुमने विद्यालय में भी मुझसे बात नहीं की। जब तुम्हें मेरे न आने का पता चलेगा, तब तुम मुझे अवश्य क्षमा कर दोगी। मेरी दादी की तबियत अचानक बहुत खराब हो गई थी। हम सभी दोपहर से लेकर रात तक अस्पताल में ही थे, इसलिए मैं तुम्हारे जन्मदिन की पार्टी में शामिल नहीं हो सकी।

आशा है, तुम मुझे अवश्य क्षमा कर दोगी।

तुम्हारी सहेली
कोमल।

3. छोटे भाई को परीक्षा में सफलता पाने पर बधाई पत्र लिखिए।

छात्रावास कक्षा संख्या-15
इंजीनियरिंग कॉलेज पटियाला
सेक्टर IT Section, पंजाब

प्रिय ओजस्व
प्रसन्न रहो
यहाँ सब कुशल है। आशा है वहाँ तुम भी सकुशल होंगे। कल ही पिता जी का पत्र मिला। पत्र पढ़कर पता चला कि इस वर्ष कक्षा में प्रथम आए हो और सभी विषयों में ‘ए’ श्रेणी प्राप्त की है। सच मानो पढ़कर बहुत खुशी हुई। मेरी ईश्वर से प्रार्थना है कि सफलता सदैव तुम्हारे कदम चूमें और तुम आसमान की ऊँचाई तक पहुँचो।

मैंने तुमसे वादा किया था कि अगर तुम कक्षा में प्रथम आओगे तो एक अच्छी घड़ी मेरी ओर से तुम्हें पुरस्कार स्वरूप दूंगा। दशहरे की छुट्टियों में जब मैं घर जाऊँगा तो तुम्हारी पसंद की घड़ी दिलाऊँगा। माँ और पिता जी को मेरा सादर प्रणाम कहना।।

तुम्हारा अग्रज
प्रणव
पटियाला, पंजाब

4. वाद-विवाद प्रतियोगिता में प्रथम स्थान प्राप्त करने पर छोटी बहन को बधाई देते हुए पत्र लिखिए।

परीक्षा भवन
नई दिल्ली
दिनांक 30 मई 20XX
परीक्षा भवन
गाजियाबाद
दिनांक 10 मई 20XX

प्रिय कोमल
यह देखकर प्रसन्नता हुई कि तुमने अंतरराज्यीय विद्यालयों में आयोजित ‘आतंकवाद’ विषय पर वाद-विवाद प्रतियोगिता में प्रथम स्थान प्राप्त किया है। तुम्हारी सफलता पर मैं तुम्हें हार्दिक बधाई देती हूँ। और आशा करती हूँ कि आगे की परीक्षा में भी तुम्हें इसी प्रकार सफलता मिले। चूँकि तुम प्रतियोगिता में प्रथम आई हो, इसलिए विश्वविद्यालय की ओर से छात्रवृत्ति और स्वर्ण पदक दोनों तुम्हें मिलेंगे। मेरा पूर्ण विश्वास है कि तुम अपनी पढ़ाई जारी रखोगी। मेरा तो विचार है कि तुम्हें आई०ए०एस० की प्रतियोगिता परीक्षा में भी सम्मिलित होना चाहिए। ईश्वर तुम्हारा पथ प्रशस्त करे।

तुम्हारी बहन
नेहा

5. अपने मित्र के दादा जी के निधन पर उसे सांत्वना पत्र।

15/4 ब्रह्मपुरी
मेरठ-2
12 जुलाई 20XX

अभिन्न मित्र राकेश
सस्नेह
आज ही तुम्हारे पूज्य दादा जी के अचानक निधन हो जाने का दुखद समाचार सुना। सुनकर स्तब्ध रह गया। मुझे इस समाचार पर सहसा विश्वास नहीं हुआ। पिछले हफ्ते ही जब मैं आया था तब वे कितने प्रसन्नचित एवं स्वस्थ लग रहे थे। उन्होंने मुझे एक सुंदर कलम भी दिया था। यह कलम सदैव उनकी स्मृति बनकर मेरे पास रहेगा। उनकी प्रसन्न मुद्रा तथा मधुर स्नेह को मैं आजीवन नहीं भुला पाऊँगा।

प्रिय मित्र! इस संसार में केवल मृत्यु ही ऐसी चीज़ है जिसे टाला नहीं जा सकता। ऐसी स्थिति में केवल संतोष कर लेने के अलावा कोई चारा नहीं है। मैं तुम्हारे मन की मन:स्थिति का अनुमान लगा सकता हूँ। पर मित्र धैर्य रखना होगा।

ईश्वर से मेरी प्रार्थना है कि वे दिवंगत आत्मा को सद्गति और तुम्हें एवं तुम्हारे परिवार जनों को यह दुख सहने की शक्ति एवं धैर्य प्रदान करें।

यदि मुझे पूर्व निर्धारित कार्यक्रम के अनुसार अपने मामा जी के यहाँ मुंबई न जाना होता, तो स्वयं आकर तुमसे मिलता। वहाँ से लौटने पर मैं तुमसे मिलने आऊँगा।

तुम्हारा अभिन्न मित्र
रजत

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NCERT Books for Class 12 All Subjects

NCERT Books for Class 12 Maths – English Medium

• Chapter 1: Relations and Functions
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• Chapter 6: Application of Derivatives
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• अध्याय 2: प्रतिलोम त्रिकोणमितीय फलन
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• अध्याय 10: सदिश बीजगणित
• अध्याय 11: त्रि-विमीय ज्यामिती
• अध्याय 12: रैखिक प्रोग्रामन
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• Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Induction
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• अध्याय 2: स्थिर वैधुत विभव तथा धारिता
• अध्याय 3: विधुत धारा
• अध्याय 4: गतिमान आवेश और चुंबकत्व
• अध्याय 5: चुंबकत्व एवं द्रव्य
• अध्याय 6: वैधुतचुंबकीय प्रेरण
• अध्याय 7: प्रत्यावर्ती धारा
• अध्याय 8: वैधुतचुंबकीय तरंगे
• अध्याय 9: किरण प्रकाशिकी एवं प्रकाशिक यंत्र
• अध्याय 10: तरंग – प्रकाशिकी
• अध्याय 11: विकिरण तथा द्रव्य की द्वैत प्रकृति
• अध्याय 12: परमाणु
• अध्याय 13: नाभिक
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• Unit 11: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
• Unit 12: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
• Unit 13: Amines
• Unit 14: Biomolecules
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• अध्याय 1: ठोस अवस्था
• अध्याय 2: विलयन
• अध्याय 3: वैधुतरसायन
• अध्याय 4: रासायनिक बलगतिकी
• अध्याय 5: पृष्ठ रसायन
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• अध्याय 7: p- ब्लॉक के तत्व
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जीव विज्ञान

• अध्याय 1: जीवों में जनन
• अध्याय 2: पुष्पी पादपों में लैंगिक जनन
• अध्याय 3: मानव जनन
• अध्याय 4: जनन स्वास्थ्य
• अध्याय 5: वंशागति तथा विविधता के सिद्धांत
• अध्याय 6: वंशागति के आणविक आधार
• अध्याय 7: विकास
• अध्याय 8: मानव स्वास्थ्य तथा रोग
• अध्याय 9: खाद्य उत्पादन में वृद्धि की कार्यनीति
• अध्याय 10: मानव कल्याण में सूक्ष्म जीव
• अध्याय 11: जैव प्रौद्योगिकी – सिद्धांत व प्रक्रम
• अध्याय 12: जैव प्रौद्योगिकी एवं उसके उपयोग
• अध्याय 13: जीव और समष्टियाँ
• अध्याय 14: पारितंत्र
• अध्याय 15: जीव विविधतता एवं संरक्षण
• अध्याय 16: पर्यावरण के मुद्दे
• पूरक पाठय सामग्री

NCERT Books for Class 12 English (Core)

Flamingo – Prose

• Lesson 1: The Last Lesson (Alphonse Daudet)
• Lesson2: Lost Spring (Anees Jung)
• Lesson3: Deep Water (William Douglas)
• Lesson 4: The Rattrap (Selma Lagerlof)
• Lesson 5: Indigo (Louis Fischer)
• Lesson 6: Poets and Pancakes
• Lesson 7: The Interview
• Lesson 8: Going Places (A. R. Barton)

Flamingo – Poetry

• Poem 1: My Mother at Sixty – Six (Kamala Das)
• Poem 2: An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum (Stephen Spender)
• Poem 3: Keeping Quiet (Pablo Neruda)
• Poem 4: A Thing of Beauty (John Keats)
• Poem 5: A Roadside Stand
• Poem 6: Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers (Adrienne Rich)

Vistas – Supplementary Reader

• Chapter 1: The Third Level (Jack Finney)
• Chapter 2. The Tiger King (Kalki)
• Chapter 3. Journey to the end of the Earth (Tishani Doshi)
• Chapter 4. The Enemy Pearl (S. Buck)
• Chapter 5. Should Wizard hit Mommy (John Updike)
• Chapter 6. On the face of It (Susan Hill)
• Chapter 7. Evans Tries an O-level (Colin Dexter)
• Chapter 8. Memories of Childhood (Zitkala-Sa & Bama)

The post NCERT Books for Class 12 appeared first on Learn CBSE.

CBSE Class 8 Hindi अनुच्छेद-लेखन Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 8 Hindi अनुच्छेद-लेखन.

CBSE Class 8 Hindi अनुच्छेद-लेखन

अनुच्छेद लेखन भी कला है। किसी विषय पर सीमित शब्दों में अपने विचार लिखना ही अनुच्छेद लेखन है। यदि अनुच्छेद को ‘लघु निबंध’ कहा जाए तो गलत न होगा। इसमें शब्द सीमा के भीतर विषय-परिचय, वर्णन व निष्कर्ष लिखने होते हैं। इस प्रकार अनुच्छेद को निबंध का लघुतम रूप कहा जा सकता है।
अनुच्छेद लिखने के लिए निम्नलिखित बातों का ध्यान रखना चाहिए।

• अनुच्छेद की भाषा सरल होनी चाहिए।
• भाषा संक्षिप्त, भाव प्रधान, अर्थपूर्ण और प्रभावोत्पादक होनी चाहिए।
• कक्षा आठवीं 125-150 शब्द होनी चाहिए।
• इसमें अनावश्यक विस्तार नहीं होना चाहिए।
• इसमें शब्द-चयन पर विशेष ध्यान दिया जाता है।
• वाक्यों में परस्पर संबंध होना चाहिए।

आवश्यकता हो तो मुहावरे या लोकोक्ति का प्रयोग कर विषय-वस्तु को और रोचक बनाया जा सकता है।

अनुच्छेद के कुछ उदाहरण

1. मीठी वाणी
वाणी से ही सबकी पहचान होती है। इसीलिए किसी कवि ने ठीक ही कहा है
‘बोली एक अनमोल है जो कोई बोले जानि’
‘हिए तराजू तोलि के तब मुख बाहर आनि’।

मनुष्य वाणी के द्वारा ही दूसरे को अपना मित्र या शत्रु बना लेता है। मीठी वाणी बोलने से आप अपने विरोधियों को भी अपने पक्ष में कर सकते हैं और इससे मन को शांति मिलती है। मीठी वाणी से मनुष्य समाज में सम्मान प्राप्त करता है। मीठा बोलकर लोगों का दिल जीत सकते हैं। मधुर वाणी से शत्रु का हृदय भी जीता जा सकता है। ‘वाणी’ मनुष्य का आभूषण है। संसार में सभी मनुष्य मीठी वाणी बोलें, तो परस्पर प्रेम और शांति से मिलकर रह सकेंगे। इसके माध्यम से समस्त संसार की समस्याओं का समाधान निकल पाएगा। इसीलिए किसी कवि ने कहा है कि- ‘मधुरवचन है औषधि, कटुक वचन है तीर’ मधुर वचन औषधि के समान होते हैं, जबकि कटु वचन तीर के समान।

2. मैं पर्यावरण रक्षक हूँ ।
प्रकृति से मनुष्य का अटूट संबंध रहा है। मानवीय विकास में प्रकृति की विशेष भूमिका रही है। मुझे इस बात की गंभीर चिंता रहती है कि यदि इसी प्रकार हम लोग पर्यावरण को नुकसान पहुँचाते रहे तो इस पृथ्वी की क्या होगा? इस पृथ्वी को जिसे ‘माँ’ के रूप में देखते हैं, क्या अपने स्वार्थ के कारण ऐसे ही नष्ट हो जाएगी। लेकिन हम ऐसा नहीं होने देंगे। अपने वजूद को बचाने के लिए इस पृथ्वी को हमें बचाना ही होगा। इस धरती माँ को बचाने के लिए अभी और कुछ करने का संकल्प लेना होगा। इन्हीं विचारों को लेकर हमने पर्यावरण संरक्षण समिति बनाई। अब हममें से प्रत्येक व्यक्ति पर्यावरण प्रेमी है। हम लोग अपने घर के आस-पास वातावरण को साफ सुथरा रखते हैं। कोई भी खुशी का अवसर हो, एक पौधा अवश्य लगाते हैं। हम सब उसकी देखभाल करते हैं। इस तरह हम लोग विश्व स्तर पर इस समस्या का समाधान कुछ न कुछ अवश्य निकालेंगे।

3. परिश्रम की महिमा
परिश्रम सफलता की कुंजी है। यह सभी प्रकार की उपलब्धि तथा सफलता का आधार है। परिश्रमी व्यक्तियों ने मानव जाति के उत्थान में महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया है। परिश्रम से कठिन से कठिन काम भी आसान हो जाता है। मेहनत से जी चुराने वाला व्यक्ति आलसी बन जाता है। उसे जीवन में किसी प्रकार का लाभ नहीं होता। उसमें कार्य के प्रति उमंग, उत्साह और जोश नहीं होता। परिश्रमी व्यक्तियों ने वैज्ञानिक उन्नति में अपनी महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभायी है। अपने परिश्रम के बलबूते मनुष्य अंतरिक्ष में जा चुका है। परिश्रमी व्यक्ति ही सदैव सफलता प्राप्त करता है। अतः हमें सभी कार्य सदैव परिश्रमपूर्वक करना चाहिए।

4. परीक्षा के दिन
प्राचीन काल से ही परीक्षा की परंपरा चली आ रही है। ज्यों-ज्यों परीक्षा निकट आती है, त्यों-त्यों धड़कन तेज़ हो जाती है। हर काम में जल्दी लगी रहती है। परीक्षा हमें शत्रु की तरह दिखाई देती है। तनाव के कारण छात्रों को रातों में नींद नहीं आती। दिल काफ़ी बेचैन रहता है। चिंताएँ लगातार बनी रहती हैं। हर समय नींद में कापी और किताबों का सपना आता रहता है। यहाँ हमेशा भय बना रहता है कि कोई विषय में कमी न रह जाए। मानसिक तनाव में रहता है। जिनकी पूरी तैयारी रहती है वे तनावयुक्त रहते हैं। बच्चे सोचते है काश! ये परीक्षाएँ न होतीं, तो जीवन कितना सरल और सुखी होता।

5. भारतीय संस्कृति
भारतीय संस्कृति का मूल ‘वैदिक संस्कृति है। यह संस्कृति विश्व की प्राचीनतम संस्कृतियों में से एक है। भारतीय संस्कृति पर अनेक धर्म, जाति, संप्रदाय, मत और आचार-विचारों का प्रभाव पड़ता गया। भारतीय संस्कृति में समाज के सभी पहलुओं पर विचार किया गया तथा व्यक्ति, परिवार, समाज से लेकर राष्ट्रीय उद्भव तक के विभिन्न मार्ग दिखाए गए। हमारी संस्कृति अपनी उदारता-सहिष्णुता के कारण आज भी विश्व को आकर्षित करती है। यहाँ विचारों की स्वतंत्रता है। ‘समन्वय की भावना भारतीय संस्कृति की विशेषता है। भारतीय संस्कृति आशावाद, धार्मिकता तथा अहिंसा की सबसे बड़ी समर्थक है।

6. जीवन में खेलकूद का स्थान
जीवन की सफलता के लिए शारीरिक, मानसिक तथा मौलिक विकास का होना अति आवश्यक है। इसके लिए व्यायाम या खेल बहुत अनिवार्य है। खेलों से हम अनुशासन, संगठन, आज्ञा पालन, साहस, आत्मविश्वास तथा एकाग्रचितता जैसे गुणों को प्राप्त करते हैं। अच्छे स्वास्थ्य के लिए व्यायाम, खेलकूद आवश्यक है। प्राणायाम योगासन, दंड-बैठक आदि से शरीर की पुष्टि हो सकती है लेकिन इनसे भरपूर मनोरंजन नहीं होता है। दौड, कूद, खों-खों, हॉकी, फुटबॉल, क्रिकेट आदि खेलों में व्यायाम के साथ-साथ हमारी पूरा मनोरंजन भी होता है। खेलकूद से केवल हमारा शरीर की पुष्ट नहीं होता बल्कि खेल के मैदानों में आज्ञाकारिता, अनुशासन, धैर्य, संयम, सहिष्णुता, सहयोग, एकता, त्याग, जैसे गुण अनायास ही प्राप्त हो जाते हैं। खेलों से राष्ट्रीय एकता की भावना पुष्ट होती है। आज देश-विदेश में अनेक स्तरों पर खेलों का आयोजन होता है। प्रांतीय, राष्ट्रीय, राष्ट्रमंडलीय, एशियाई तथा ओलंपिक आदि खेलों का नियमित रूप से आयोजन होता रहता है।

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CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 9 HTML and XML Pdf free download is part of Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 9 HTML and XML.

CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 9 HTML and XML

Introduction to HTML
HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is a markup language, quite different from programming languages like Java, Perl, C or BASIC. It is a way of describing how a set of text, and images should be displayed to the viewer, similar in concept to a newspaper editor’s markup symbols. HTML has no compiler or interpreter and they are browser dependent. We can create an HTML program in any text editor. Thereafter, we can run it on a browser like Internet Explorer. The file name for an HTML program should have .htm or .html extension.

Web Page
A web page consists of an HTML file with any image (picture) files used on the page. The HTML file (a normal text file) contains all the text to display and also acts as the ‘glue’ to hold the text and images together in the right places and display them in the right style. Writing an HTML file means composing the text you want to display, then inserting any tags you want in the right places. Tags tells a browser to do something special, like to show text in italic or bold in a larger font, show an image or to make a link to another web page.
Tags can be broadly divided into two categories as:
1. Container tags
These types of tags require a pair of tags that is a starting tag and an ending tag. These tags effect the content which is capsulised between the starting and ending tag.
An ending tag is similar to that of a starting tag except that, it begins with a slash (/) symbol.
Some of the container tags are given below:

<HTML>........</HTML>
<HEAD>........</HEAD>
<TITLE>.......</TITLE> 
<B>.......</B>

2. Empty tags
These types of tags require only a starting tag instead of a pair of tags. i.e. it does not require an ending tag.
Some of the empty tags are given below:

<HR>
<IMG>
<LINK>
<BASEF0NT>
<BR>
<BASE>

HTML Document Structure
The basic structure of an HTML document consists of the html, head, title and body elements. The four basic structure elements are always present in every HTML document. Technically, the <HTML> tag can only contain two things, a <HEAD> container tag and a <BODY> container tag. Inside the <BODY> tag, you put your whole page to displayed all text, images, hyperlinks and so on, are contained between the <BODY> and </BODY> tags.

The optional <HEAD> section, placed before the <BODY> section, lets you store certain information about the document itself. When the <HEAD> section even exists at all, it might contain only the <TITLE> container tag, which says what to display in the title of the browser window, above the menu bar (if you have a graphical browser).
Basic structure of a HTML document is as follows:

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
This section is for the title of web page 
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<B0DY>
This section is for all that you want to show on the web page 
</B0DY>
</HTML>

If you don’t want a title, leave out the lines beginning with <HEAD> <TITLE></TITLE> and </HEAD>. If this is confusing, don’t worry, just stick the text <HTML> <BODY> at the beginning of your file and </BODY> </HTML> at the end and it will magically become a legitimate HTML file.

Creating an HTML Document
To create an HTML document using Notepad, you need to follow the steps given below:

1. Open Notepad by clicking at Start – * All Programs – * Accessories – * Notepad or, use the Windows key+R, then type Notepad.exe and press enter.
2. Type your HTML code into your Notepad.
3. To save your HTML page, click File—* Save As, and then save it with .htm or .html extension.

Accessing an HTML Document in a Browser
To access an HTML document using web browser, follow the steps given below:

1. In the browser window, click the File menu and then click an Open.
2. Click browser then navigate to its location.
3. When you find your file, double click the file to open it.
   Now, the HTML document runs on web browser.

HTML Tags
Tags have a simple structure and they begin with a “<” and end with a “>”. Between the < > angular bracket are the tag name and may be some attributes, depending on the tag. Most attributes take a value too. Some attributes are required and some are optional.
The general form of a tag is:

<TAGNAME ATTRIBUTEl=“val uel” ATTRIBUTE2=“value2” ... >

Tag names and attribute names are not case sensitive, but some attributes are case sensitive. The tag name must come first, but the order of the attributes doesn’t matter. So, you could also write this tag as

<TAGNAME ATTRIBUTE2=“value2” ATTRIBUTEl=“value1” ... >

Basic HTML Tags are as follows:

<HTML> Tag
The <HTML> tag identifies the document as an HTML document. <HTML> tag represents the root of an HTML document. So, it acts as the container tag for all other HTML elements. All HTML documents starts with <HTML> tag and ends with </HTML> tag.
Syntax

<HTML>
.
.
.
.
other HTML Elements
.
.
.
.
</HTML>

<HEAD> Tag
The <HEAD> tag defines the document header and does not effect on the appearance of the document in the browser window.
The <HEAD> element can also include a title for the document.

Syntax <HEAD> Header of the document </HEAD>

<TITLE> Tag
The <TITLE> tag defines the title of the document. It is placed between <HEAD> and </HEAD> tags. Each document can have only one title which should identify the document content in a general way. The title is not a part of the document text and cannot contain hypertext links or special markup command. It must be simple text.

Syntax <TITLE> Title of the Page </TITLE>

<BODY> Tag
The <BODY> tag defines the largest part of HTML document, i.e. the body. This tag contains all the major content of the document. It contains all the content of an HTML document, such as text, images, lists, tables, hyperlinks, etc.

Syntax <B0DY> Body of the document </BODY>

Heading (HI H6) Tags in HTML
There are six levels of headings in HTML, which are numbered 1 to 6. The 1 numbered heading is the largest and bolder in fonts than normal body text. The first heading in each document should be tagged <H1>
Number 1 to 6 specifies the level of heading and attribute ALIGN sets the heading in left side, right side or at the center.

If ALIGN = RIGHT,    then the heading is aligned at RIGHT
   ALIGN = LEFT,     then the heading is aligned at LEFT
   ALIGN = CENTER,   then the heading is aligned at CENTER

Hi……..H6, represents different levels of headings. They each are differ by some factors such as typeface, font size and the space. Sample code to illustrate the use of headings is as follows:

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Heading in HTML </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<B0DY>
<H1 ALIGN = “CENTER”> Level 1 Heading </Hl>
<H2> Level 2 Heading </H2>
<H3 ALIGN = “RIGHT”) Level 3 Heading </H3>
<H4> Level 4 Heading </H4>
<H5 ALIGN = "CENTER”) Level 5 Heading </H5>
<H6> Level 6 Heading </H6>
</B0DY>
</HTML>
Output 

Paragraph <P> Tag
This tag is used to add space between paragraphs and this is a container tag. The align attribute specifies the alignment of the text within a paragraph.

Syntax <P ALIGN = “Left/Right/Center/Justify”)

To end a line and also show blank line before beginning anything else, use a paragraph marker <P>.

Line Break <BR> Tag
The <BR> tag (or Line Break tag) is used to simply end the current line and jump to the next line. The <BR> tag is useful for writing address.

Syntax <BR>

Horizontal Rule <HR> Tag
<HR> tag is used to separate the field into two sections by forming a rule or line. Separate section is formed and the size of different section can be fixed. The <HR> tag produces a horizontal line spread across the width of the browser window.
Syntax <HR>// for normal horizontal rule.
Default size of Horizontal Rule is 3 pixels.
Horizontal rule having size 12 pixels, 36 pixels and 72 pixels are given below:

<HR SIZE = 12>
<HR SIZE = 36>
<HR SIZE = 72>

<FONT> Tag
The <FONT> tag is used to change font sizes, font colors and font styles of the text in your web pages, but it is depreciated in HTML 4.0 in favour of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). The <FONT> tag provides no real functionality by itself but with the help of a few attributes, (i.e. size, color and face) it provides functionality. The size, color and face attributes can all be used at once or individually, providing users with the ability to create dynamic font styles for any HTML element.

Font Size
The <FONT> tag uses size attribute to specify the relative or absolute size of text. The size of font ranges from 1 (very small) to 7 (very large).

Syntax <FQNT SIZE =“2”> text </F0NT>

A number from 1 to 7 that defines the size of the text. By default, font size is 3

Font Color
The color attribute defines the color of the text inside a <FONT> element. To change the text color, you need to add the attribute color to the opening font tag and assign it a value for the color. The color values can be given either as standard color name e.g. red, blue, black, etc., or as RGB components e.g. # 000099. The RGB components are denoted by a preceding # sign followed by six_digit hex number.

Syntax <F0NT COLOR = “color name/RGB value of color”>

Font Face
The face attribute defines the font or style of the text inside a <FONT> element. To change the font style from the default to a different style, simply add the attribute FACE to the opening FONT tag. As value for the face attribute, you can use any specific font name such as “Verdana”, “Arial” and many more. The font face value are case insensitive.

Lists
HTML offers a mechanism for specifying lists of information. All list must contain one or more list elements. The most common HTML lists are ordered and unordered lists.
1. Ordered lists
These are also known as numbered list and lists items that have a specified numerical order or ranking.
An ordered list start with <OL> tag and each list item starts with the <LI> tag.

e.g.
<0L>
<LI>Coffee</LI>
<LI> Milk </LI>
<LI>Tea </LI>
</0L>

The above HTML code in a browser looks like:

1. Coffee
2. Milk
3. Tea

2. Unordered lists
These are also known as bulleted lists, because they have small bullet icons infront of the list items.
These are used for the lists which do not require any order.
An HTML list starts with the <UL> tag and each list item starts with the <LI> tag. These
items are marked with bullets (typically small black circles).

e.g.
<UL>
<LI>Coffee </LI>
<LI>Milk </LI>
<LI>Tea </LI> 
</UL>

The above HTML code in a browser looks like:

• Coffee
• Milk
• Tea

Comments
You can put comments in your HTML file that won’t display the text within the comments on the web page. This lets you explain why your HTML code is a certain way, to anyone viewing your HTML source code. This may be someone else or (more likely) it may be you at some point in the future. Start a comment with

"<!- - " and end it with "- ->", like
<!- - This is a comment and won’t be displayed to the user -->
<!- - comment examples inserted by JSM on 9-23-96, for clarity -->

Do not put private information in comments, as anyone viewing the source code can easily see them. Also, do not put HTML tags inside your comments, since most browsers will think the comment ends with the first “>’ character.

Tables
We can create tables and display text, number, etc., in tabular form:

1. Tables are defined with the <TABLE> container tag.
2. The <TABLE> tag contains rows of cells, defined with the <TR> container tag.
3. Each <TR> tag contains data cells, defined with the <TH> and <TD> container tag.
4. Each data cell contains whatever you want i.e. links, images, lists or even other tables.

Rows are defined from top to bottom and cells are defined from left to right. If you want lines to show up between the table cells, use the border attribute in the <TABLE> tag.

e.g. <TABLE border>
<TR>
<TD>northwest</TD>
<TD>northeast</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>southwest</TD>
<TD>southeast</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>

It will be rendered as

Most browsers do not require the ending </TR> or </TD> tags; they assume one cell or row ends when the next one begins. So, you might see tables written without those end tags (though the </TABLE> end tag is still required).

Note As of October 1996, this may cause trouble with nested tables, due to a browser bug.

Cells that Span Multiple Columns or Rows
Sometimes, you may want one cell to span more than one column’across or more than one row deep. In these cases, use the colspan and rowspan attributes of the <TD> tag. Then, just skip defining the cells that the large cell would overlay.

e.g. 
<TABLE B0RDER=2>
<TR>
<TH R0WSPAN=3 B6C0L0R=“#99CCFF”>Production</TH> <TD>Picture</TD>
<TD>1234</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH C0LSPAN=3 BGC0L0R=“#99CCFF”>Production</TH> </TR>
</TABLE>

It will be rendered as 

Cellspacing and Cellpadding
The cellspacing tag is used to create space between different cells within your table and the cellpadding tag controls or set the amount of space between the contents of the cell and the cell wall. By default, cellpadding is 1. Cellpadding is usually more effective than cellspacing for spreading out the content of table.

e.g. 
<HTML>
<B0DY>
<TABLE BORDER =“1” CELLSPACING = “10” CELLPADDING=“15”> <TR>
<TD>Jan</TD>
<TD>Feb</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Mar</TD>
<TD>Apr</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>

It will be rendered as

Aligning Cell Contents within the Cells
Usually, all cell contents are left justified and vertically centered by default. To set the horizontal or vertical placement within the <TD> tag, use the align and valign attributes, respectively.

• align can be left, right or center.
• valign can be top, middle, bottom or baseline (aligned to baseline of the text).
  e.g. this borderless grocery receipt lines up the prices on the right margin

<TABLE>
<TR>
<TD>Iaundry detergent</TD>
<TD ALIGN ="right”>Rs. 5</TD> 
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>cat food</TD>
<TD ALIGN=“right”>Rs. 128.00</TD> 
</TR>
</TABLE>

It will be rendered as

You can also use the align and valign attributes in the <TR> tag, to affect all cells in that row.

Forms
Forms start with the <FORM> tag and end with the </FORM> tag. In the form, you can still put any HTML code you want, but you can also use these tags to define input fields that contains interactive controls that enable a user to submit information to a web server.
The following tags are used to define the input fields:

• <INPUT> defines text entry fields, check boxes, radio buttons or push buttons.
• <SELECT> defines drop-down menus and selection boxes.
• <TEXTAREA> defines multi-line text entry fields.
  The <FORM> tag has
• An action attribute which is the URL of the CGI script to send the form data.
• A method attribute which is the HTTP method used to submit the form data.
  So, a typical <FORM> tag is

<F0RM ACTI0N= “http://www.myhost.com/mypath/myscript.cgi” METHOD=post>

Every input field in a form has a name, defined by the name attribute of the <INPUT>, <SELECT> or <TEXTAREA> tag. Every input field also has a value, which the user sets by typing in it or clicking on it. The entire set of form data is represented as a set of these name-value pairs when it is submitted to the CGI script. Empty text fields are sent as name-value pairs with a value of an empty string, but check boxes and radio buttons that are not checked are not sent at all. To test your form, you can call simple scripts at NCSA (National Center for Supercomputing Application) that tell you what name-value pairs were submitted. To do this, set the action attribute to the following:

• For get submissions: http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi-bin/query

• For post submissions: http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi-bin/post-query

<INPUT> Tag
Use the <INPUT> tag to create most form fields, as well as submit and reset buttons. It has a varying set of attributes depending on the type attribute, which can be of any type:

• text a normal text entry field (default).
• password identical to text, but the user’s typing is not displayed.
• checkbox a box (for simple ON/OFF values).
• radio a radio button (for choosing one of several choices).
• submit a button that submits the form data, when user input is done.
• reset a button that resets all form fields to their initial values.
• image like submit but shows an image as the button. •
• hidden lets you define extra name-value pairs to be sent to the CGI script, but not displayed.

(i) text and password fields have the following optional attributes:

• value sets a default value for the field.
• size sets the displayed length of the field.
• maxlength sets the maximum amount of data that can be entered.

(ii) checkbox and radio fields have the following optional attributes:

• value it contains the value either ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ the default is the word ‘ON’.
• checked (no value needed) means it’s checked by default.

(iii) submit and reset fields use the optional value attribute as the label on the button.
(iv) image field requires a src attribute with the URL of the image to use and it supports most attributes the <img> tag does.
(v) The hidden field uses the name and value attributes to define a name-value pair. Use it to send data to the CGI script that the user doesn’t need to know. Do not use it for secret data, since the user can always view the source code.
To create a set of radio buttons, give them all the same name but different values. Only the selected value will be sent to the server when the form is submitted. Usually, you will have text before or after text, password, checkbox and radio fields, to label them for the user. No label is shown automatically.
The submit and image fields can actually have a name attribute, to send information about how the form was submitted. If you have multiple submit buttons, your CGI script can distinguish them by their different names or values (only the submit button you click is sent as a name-value pair). If an image field has a name attribute of (let’s say) ‘att’, then the xy-location of the mouse click on the button is sent as two integer fields, with names of ‘att.x’ and ‘att.y’. This effectively allows an image map with an image button.
e.g. of <INPUT> fields, in the same order as listed above, are

State: <INPUT type=text name=“state” value=“CA” size=“2” maxlength=“2”> Password: <INPUT type=password name=“password”>
<INPUT type=checkbox name=“moreinfo” va1ue=“yes” checked>Send me more info. Select your gender below
<BRXINPUT type=radio name=“gender” value=“F”>Female <BRXINPUT type=radio name=“gender” value=“M">Male <BRXINPUT type=radio name="gender” value=“0”>0ther <INPUT type=submit value=“0K, let’er rip1”>
<INPUT type=reset value=“ Whoops-- erase that”>
<INPUT type=image src=“/images/gobutton.gif” width=“60” height=‘‘30”>
<INPUT type=hidden name=“totalsofar” value=“1290.65”>

<SELECT> Tag
Use the <SELECT> container tag to create drop-down menus and scrolled lists. Between <SELECT> and </SELECT>, you can only have <OPTION> tags and their text, which define the items in the list. The <SELECT> tag has a name attribute, like every input field. Other optional attributes are as follows:

• size is the displayed height of the list. If it is 1 (or omitted), the list is a drop-down menu, otherwise it is a scrolled list.
• multiple (no value) lets the user select multiple items from the list (usually with Ctrl+click or Shift+click). Each selected item will be sent as a name-value pair to the CGI script.

<OPTION> Tag
An <OPTION> tag can have a value attribute, which is what sent to the CGI script if that item is selected. If there is no value attribute, the value sent is the text following the <OPTION> tag.
To make an item selected by default, use the selected attribute in the <OPTION> tag.
e.g. Choose your favourite color:

<SELECT name="favcolor”>
<OPTI0N>green
<OPTION>aquamarine 
<OPTION selected>emera1d 
<OPTION>turquoise 
<OPTI0N>aqua
<OPTION value=“green2”>green 
<OPTION value=“green3”>green 
</SELECT>

<TEXTAREA> Tag
Use the <TEXTAREA> container tag to create multi-line, scrollable, text entry boxes. Whatever will be placed between the <TEXTAREA> and </TEXTAREA> tags will be the initial contents of the entry box, so put them right next to each other, if you do not want initial contents.
The <TEXTAREA> tag has a name attribute, like every input field. Use the rows and cols attributes to set the displayed height and width of the text area.

Note The textarea scrolls as much as needed, so you’re only setting the display size, not the data size, e.g. a <TEXTAREA> entry field is

<TEXTAREA name=“stuff” rows=‘‘10” col s=“60”>Enter stuff hereC/TEXTAREA>

Special Characters
How do you display the < and > characters? If you just type them in your HTML file, the browser will think you are starting or ending a tag. You have got to escape the characters, as it’s called, by typing special sequences of characters in their place. When displaying your page, the browser translates the sequences back into the characters you need.

All special character sequences start with *&’ (ampersand) and end with V (semicolon) and in between is the name of the special character, e.g. ‘&gt;’ means the greater than symbol, ‘&lt;’ means the less than symbol, ‘&quot;’ means double quotes and ‘&amp;’ means the ampersand itself, e.g. the line to display the < character, use the sequence &lt;.

Hyperlinks
Hyperlinks are used to navigate between web pages of a website. In order to create a hyperlink we have to use the anchor tag (<a>…</a>).
The href attribute of the anchor tag is used to provide the web page location you want to jump to.

e.g. <A href=“NextPage.htm”>Click Here </A>

Linking to the Middle of a Page
To link to another part of the same page or to the middle of another page, first create a named anchor at the point you want to link to. Do this with the <A> tag and the name attribute, like

<A name = “anchorname”> </A>

Note The different use of the <A> tag; in fact, <A> was originally short for anchor. Since, the anchor just marks a point on the page, you don’t need to put anything between <A> and </A>.
Once the anchor exists at the target location, link to it with the <A href> tag, appending “#anchorname” (the URL fragment) to the target URL, like
Read about <A href =“http://www.jmarshall.com/easy/html/#lists”>HTML lists</A>.
Which is rendered as Read about HTML lists.
To point somewhere else on the same page, leave out the rest of the URL all together.
e.g. <A href = “#toc”> Back to table of contents</A>
is rendered as
Back To Table Of Contents

Introduction to XML
extensible Markup Language (XML) is a simple, very flexible text format derived from SGML, designed especially for web documents. The XML standard was created by W3C to provide an easy to use and standardised way to store self describing data. It allows designers to create their own customised tags, enabling the definition, transmission, validation and interpretation of data between applications and between organisations.

Applications of XML

1. Web publishing XML allows you to create interactive pages, allows the user to customise the pages and creating e-commerce applications more intuitive.
2. Web searching and automating web tasks XML defines the type of information contained in a document, making it easier to return useful results when searching the web.
3. General applications XML provides a standard method to access information, making it easier for applications and devices of all kinds to use, store, transmit and display data.
4. Business applications XML provides implementations to make Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) more accessible for information interchange, business to business transactions and business to customer transactions.
5. Metadata applications XML makes it easier to express metadata in a portable and reusable format.

XML Editors
The basic job of an XML editor is to allow you to create and manipulate XML documents. The basic features which you need are syntax highlighting, color code to make XML easier to read and understand.

Free XML editors

1. XML looktop.
2. XMLmind Standard Edition.
3. Peter’s XML Editors.

Features of XML

1. XML are the text files which can be managed by any text editor.
2. XML is widely used as a format for document storage and processing, both online and offline.
3. The XML document which uses the DTD has the XML tags in it. It is in the XML document, the tags or the elements are defined for the data.
4. XML is extensible, because it only specifies the structural rules of tags. No specification on tags themself.
5. XML provides a gateway for communication between applicants.
6. It can represent common computer science data structure records, lists and trees.
7. It is a platform independent, thus relatively immune to changes in technology.
8. XML does not allow references to external data entities, named as, character references which are not allowed in XML.
9. XML does not allow empty comment declaration.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 9 HTML and XML Pdf free download will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 9 HTML and XML, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals is part of Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals.

Informatics Practices Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 3 Java Programming Fundamentals

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
Distinguish between / and ‘%’ operators. (Delhi 2014; All India 2014)
Answer:
‘/‘ is division operator which when applied on two operands returns the result of division. ‘%‘ is the modulus operator which when applied to two integer operands returns the remainder of division operations.

Question 2.
Is a string containing a single character same as a Char? (All India 2014)
Answer:
No, a string containing a single character is not same as a char.
E.g., X is a string which is stored as X/O” in memory whereas ‘X’ means single character ‘X’ only.

Question 3.
Write a statement in Java to declare a String type variable with a name City. (All India 2014)
Answer:
String City.

Question 4.
Write one difference between IF statement and SWITCH statement? (All India 2014C)
Answer:
If statement used to select among two alternatives whereas, switch statement used to select among multiple alternatives.

Question 5.
Write the value of sum1 after execution of the following WHILE loop:(All India 2014C)

int i = 1, suml=0; 
while(i<10)
{
suml=suml+i; 
i=i+2;
}

Answer:
The value sumi after execution of the given code is 25.

Question 6.
Write statement to increase the value assigned to variable z by 5 and then to display the value. (All India 2014C)
Answer:

int z:
z=5;
System. out.println(z) :

Question 7.
What is the difference between the use of JTextField and JPasswordField in a form? (AllIndia 2013)
Answer:

JTextField The JTextField is used to display a text box. In this text box, the user can input or edit the data.

JPasswordField does not directly display its content. Infact it uses a single character (usually an ASTERISK) to represent each character that it contains so that it is possible to see how many characters have been typed, but not what they are. As its name suggests, JPasswordField is intended to be used as a simple way to accept a users password, JPasswordField is derived from JjextField.

Question 8.
Observe the following code carefully and find which statement will never get executed in the code?

int t = 1; // statement 1
do // statement 2
{ // statement 3
if(t>13) // statement 4
jTextFi eldl.setTextt“Something”);
// statement 5 
else // statement 6
jTextFieldl.setTextC“Pass”);
// statement 7 
t+=3; // statement 8
} // statement 9
whi1e(t<=15); // statement 10

Answer:
statement 5

Question 9.
“The variable/expression in the switch statement should either evaluate to an integer value or string value.” State True or False. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
True

Question 10.
While making a form in NetBeans, Ms. Jaya Laxminathan wants to display a list of countries to allow the users to select their own country. Suggest her to choose most appropriate control out of ListBox and ComboBox. (Delhi 2012; All India 2012)
Answer:
ComboBox will be most appropriate because user is allowed to select his own country which could be one only.

Question 11.
What is the purpose of break keyword while using switch case statement? Illustrate with the help of an example. (DelhI 2012; All IndIa 2012)
Answer:
The break statement is used to transfer the control out of the switch structure. In a switch statement when the break is not included then it will execute all the options after finding a match.
E.g.,

switch(option)
{
case 1:
System.out.println(“One”); 
break; 
case 2:
System.out.println(“Two”); 
break; 
default :
System.out.println 
(“Other than One or Two”);
}

Question 12.
List two purposes of ‘+’ operator in Java. (Delhi 2012C)
Answer:
Two purposes of ‘+’:
(i) ‘+’ is used to add two numbers.
(ii) ‘+’ is used to concatenate strings.

Question 13.
Write the output of the following code in Java. (Delhi 2012C)

int x=O;
whiie(x<=1)
{
System.out.println(”x”);
x=x+1;
}

Answer:
Output
x
x

Question 14.
What happens if we do not include BREAK statement with a CASE in a SWITCH statement? (HOTSDeIhI2O12C)
Answer:
If we do not include BREAK statement, then the CASE that matches with SWITCH gets executed as well as all the other statements of all the remaining CASES after the matching CASE also gets executed.

Question 15.
What will be the value of variables ‘m’ and ‘n’ after the execution of the following code? (DelhI 2012)

int m, n = 0;
for(m = 1;m < 4;m++)
{
n += ni;
n--;
}

Answer:
The final values of m and n after execution of the given code will be as follows:
m = 5
n = 6

Question 16.
What will be the value of variables and ‘Q’ after the execution of the following code? (All India 2012)

int P, Q = 0;
for(P =1;P <= 4;P++)
{
Q += P;
Q--:
}

Answer:
The final values of P and Q after execution of the given code will be as follows:
P = 5
Q = 6

Question 17.
While working in NetBeans, Ms. Kanta Surbhi wants to display Cleared or Reattempt, required message depending upon the marks entered in JTextField. Help her to choose more appropriate statement out of if statement and switch statement. (Delhi2011)
Answer:
In such situation, if statement is more appropriate than the switch statement. Because if statement is suitable, when we need to check for a range of values and switch statement is suitable for multiple selection.

Question 18.
While working in NetBeans, Ms. Khurana wants to display Pass or Needs to Reappear message depending upon the marks entered in JTextField. Help her to choose more appropriate statement out of if statement and switch statement. (All India 2011)
Answer:
In such situation, if statement is more appropriate than the switch statement. Because if statement is suitable, when we need to check for a range of values and switch statement is suitable for multiple selection.

Question 19.
Name any two loop control structure provided by Java? (Delhi 2011c)
Answer:
Two loop control structure are:

• For loop
• While loop

Question 20.
What is the significance of default clause in a switch statement? (Delhi 2011c)
Answer:
Default clause is used to handle the case when no match of any case in the switch statement is found.

Question 21.
Write two points of difference between a while loop and a do-while loop. (Delhi2011c)
Answer:
‘while’ loop is an entry controlled loop and ‘do-while’ is an exit controlled loop. Before the execution of the ‘while’ loop the compiler will check the test expression, if the test expression result is TRUE then only the loop executes. There is no check of the test expression before the entry into the ‘do-while’ loop i.e. the loop will execute at least once.

Question 22.
The statement i++; is equivalent to
(i) i = i + i;
(ii) i = i +1;
(iii) i = i -1;
(iv) i –; (CBSE Text Book)
Answer:
(ii) i=i+l;

Question 23.
What will be the value of total after the loop finishes execution?

int total =0; // must be initialised
before the for loop
for(int count=5;count<=10;count++)
{
total+=count;
}
JTextField1.setText("The total is" +total);

(i) 10
(ii) 16
(iii) 45
(iv) 36
Answer:
(iii) 45

Question 24.
What is wrong with the while statement?

while((ctr < 5) && (ctr > 30))

(i) The logical operator && cannot be used in a test condition
(ii) The while loop is an exit condition loop
(iii) The test condition is always false
(iv) The test condition is always true (HOTS; CBSE Text Book)
Answer:
(iii) The test condition is always false.

Question 25.
Consider the following code snippet

int anumber;
if(anumber>=10)
{
if(anumber==10)
jLabel 1.setText(“First string”); 
else
jLabel 1.setText("Second string”); 
jLabel 2.setText(“Third string”);
}

What will be the output when anumber=14?
(i) First string
(ii) Second string
(iii) First string Third string
(iv) Second string Third-string (HOTS; CBSE Text Book)
Answer:
(iv) Second string Third string

Question 26.
What will be the output of the program given below? Which number is printed twice? (HOTS; CBSE Text Book)

int sum1=3;
sum1++;
jTextFieldl.setText(” “+suml);
++sum1;
jTextFi el d2 . setText(” “-‘-sumi);
jTextField3 .setText(” “+(++surnl));
jTextField4 .setText(” “+surnl++):
jTextHeld5 .setText(” “+suml):

Answer:
The output of the given program:
4566 7
The number 6 is printed twice.

Question 27.
If there is more than one statement in the block of a for loop, which of the following must be placed at the beginning and the ending of the loop block?
(i) Parentheses()
(ii) French curly braces ()
(iii) Brackets []
(iv) Arrows <>
Answer:
(ii) French curly braces {}

Question 28.
Given the following information:

int a = 11; 
int b = 22; 
int c = 33; 
int d = 11;

Which of the following statements are true
(i) a == b
(ii) b I = d
(iii) c <= b
(iv) a < c
(v) a == d
(vi) c > a
(vii) a >= c
(a) (i), (iv) and (vii)
(b) (ii), (iv), (v) and (vi)
(c) (ii), (iv), (vi) and (vii)
(d) (iii), (v), (vi) and (vii) (CBSE Text Book)
Answer:
(b) (ii), (iv), (v) and (vi)

2 Marks Questions

Question29.
Write the difference between the following:
(i) A = 10
(ii) lf(A==10) (All India 2014C)
Answer:
(i) The ‘=’ operator is an assignment operator that is used to assign the values from right hand side to left hand side.
(ii) An ‘= = ‘operator is used with a control structure like if statement to compare left hand side and right hand side and return true if both are equal, false otherwise.

Question 30.
The following code has some error(s). Rewrite the correct code underlining all the corrections made (All India 2014C)

int z; 
z=14; 
do;
z=z-2;
System.out.displayln(z);
} while Z >= 2;

Answer:
The correct code is:

int z;
z = 14;
do_
{
z=z-2;
System.out.println(z);
}while(z >= 2);

Question 31.
Rewrite the following program code using if-else-if statement (All India 2014C)

String remarks;
int num =lnteger.parselnt
(jText Field 1.getText());
switch(num)
{
case 0: remarks = “You have not won
any points”; 
break;
case 1: remarks = “You have won one
point”; 
break;
case 2: remarks = “You have won two
points”; 
break;
default: remarks= “All the best”;
}

Answer:

String remarks; 
int num
=lnteger.parselnt(jTextFieldl .getText()) ; 
if (num == 0)
remarks = “You have not won any points”; 
else if(num == 1)
remarks = “You have won one point”; 
else if(num == 2)
remarks = "You have won two points”; 
else
remarks = “All the best”;

Question 32.
What will be the values of variables sum and sum1 after the execution of the following loops?

Answer:
Loop A

Value of variable sum = 10

Loop B

Value of variable suml = 10

Question 33.
What will be display in jTextAreal after the execution of the following loop?(Delhi 2014)

for (int 1=5; I<=25; I4=5) 
jTextAreal.setText(jTextAreal.get 
Text()+"”+Integer.toString(2*I));

Answer:
Output 10 20 30 40 50 will be displayed in the jTextAreal.

Question 34.
What will be the values of variables agg and aggl after the execution of the following loops?

Answer:
After the execution of Loop 1 value of variable agg = 9 After the execution of Loop 2 val ue of variable agg 1 = 9

Question 35.
What will be displayed in jTextAreal after the execution of the following loop? (All India 2014)

for (int 1=5; I>=2; I -- ) 
jTextAreal.setText(jTextAreal. 
getText()+"”+Integer.toString(I*I));

Answer:
25 16 9 4 will be displayed in jTextAreal after the execution of the given code.

Question 36.
What will be displayed in jTextFieldl and jTextField2 after the execution of the following code? (Delhi2013)

int Last, First = 3, Second = 5;
Last = First + Second++;
jTextFieldl.setText(Integer.
toString(Last));
jTextField2.setText(Integer.
toString(Second));

Answer:

jTextField1 = 8 
jTextField2 = 6

Question 37.
What will be the contents of Strl and Str2 after the following code is executed? (Delhi 2013)

String Str2, Strl;
Strl=“Dear Friend”;
Str2=“Hello”;
Strl=Str2. concat(Strl);

Answer:

Content of str1= Hello Dear friend 
Content of str2= Hello

Question 38.
How many times will the following loops execute? Which one of them is Entry Control and which one is Exit Control?

Answer:
The loops would execute 3 times
Loop 1 is the entry control loop
Loop 2 is the exit control loop

Question 39.
What will be displayed in jTextFieldl and jTextField 2 after the execution of the following loop? (Delhi 2013)

int Sum=0, Last=10; 
for(int C=1; C<=Last; C+=2)
Sum++;
jTextFieldl.setText(Integer.toString(Sum)); 
jTextFie1d2.setText(Integer.toString (C));

Answer:
The given code will give error because variable C cannot be used outside the for loop. However, if we consider C as global variable the output will be as follows;

jTextfieldl would show the value of Sum = 5; 
jTextfield2 would show the value of C = 11;

Question 40.
What will be the content of the jTextAreal after executing the following code (assuming that the jTextAreal has no content before executing this code)? (Delhi 2012; All India 2012)

for(int i=2;i<=5;i++)
{
jTextAreal.setText(jTextAreal. 
getTextO + “ ”+Integer.toString(i*i));
}

Answer:
4 9 16 25 49.

Question 41.
Mr. Kapoor is a programmer at Ekansh Enterprises. He created 5 digit password and stored in a string variable called strPassword. He wants to store the same password in an integer type variable called intPassword. Write an appropriate lava statement to transfer the content from strPassword to intPassword. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:

String strPassword=“12345”;
int intPassword=Integer.parselnt 
(strPassword);

Question 42.
Given a string object named Salary having value as “55000” stored in it. Obtain the output of the following: (Delhi2012)

JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(null, "" 
+Saiary.length()
+ Integer.parseInt(Sai ary));

Answer:
After the execution of the given code, the output wi 11 be as follows:

555000

Question 43.
Given a string object named Pay having value as “68000” stored in it. Obtain the output of the following: (Delhi2012)

JOptionPane.showMessageDia 1og(nul1,“ ”
+Pay.length!)
+Integer. parselnt! Pay));

Answer:
After the execution of the given code, the output will be as follows:

568000

Question 44.
What will be the values of A and B after execution of the following code: (Delhi2011)

int A=100, B; 
for(B=10;B<=12;B++)
{
A += B;
}
JOptionPane.showMessageDia 10 g(this, “A:” +A +" ”+ “B :”+B);

Answer:
The output displayed by the given code will be as follows:

A: 133 
B: 13

Question 45.
Rewrite the following program code using switch statement: (HOTS; Delhi 2011)

if(code = =1) 
day = “Monday”; 
else if(code = =2) 
day = “Tuesday”; 
else if(code = =3) 
day = “Wednesday”; 
else if(code = =4) 
day = “Thursday”; 
else
day = “No Match”;

Answer:
The given code using switch statement will be as follows:

switch(code)
{
case 1: day = "Monday”;
break;
case 2; day = “Tuesday”;
break;
case 3; day ““Wednesday”; 
break;
case 4; day = “Thursday”; 
break;
default: day = “No Match”;
}

Question 46.
What will be displayed in jTextFieldl after executing the following code? (AllIndia2011)

int m = 16; -
m = m + 1; 
if(m < 15)
jTextField.setText!Integer.toString(m)); 
else
jTextField.setText!Integer.toString (m +15));

Answer:
In jTextFieldl after execution of the given code following output will be displayed:

32

Question 47.
Rewrite the following program code using switch statement: (AllIndia2011)

if (code == 1)
month = “January”: 
else if(code = = 2) 
month = “February”; 
else if (code == 3) 
month = “March”; 
else if(code == 4) 
month = “Apri1”; 
else
month = "No Match”;

Answer:

switch(code)
case 1: month = “January”; 
break;
case 2: month = “February”; 
break;
case 3: month = "March”; 
break;
case 4: month = “Apri1"; 
break;
default month = "No Match”;
}

Question 48.
What will be the values of P and Q after execution of the following code: (Delhi 2013; All India 2011)

int P. Q=100;
for(P=10; P<=12; P++)
{
Q += P;
}
JOption Pane.showMessageDialog 
(this, “P: ”+P +“ ”+ “Q :”+Q);

Answer:
The output displayed by the given code will be as follows:

P:13 Q: 133

Question 49.
The following code has some error(s). Rewrite the correct code underlining all the corrections made. (Delhi 2011)

Int P=3, sum=0;
{
sum=P;
P+=3;
}
whi1e(P=<12)
jTextField1(Integer.tostring(sum));

Answer:

int P=3, sum=0; 
do{
sum=P;
P+=3;
}whi1e(P<=12);
JTextFi eldl(Integer .toString (sum));

Question 50.
The following code has some error(s). Rewrite the correct code underlining all the corrections made. (Delhi 2011)

int Total=0, Jump=5; 
int I;
for(i=0; I=< 5, i++)
{
Jump+=5;
Total+=Jump;
}
jTextAreal.showText(“ ” + Total);

Answer:

int Total=0, Jump=5; 
int i;
for (i=0; i<=5; i++)
Jump += 5; 
Total+=Jump;
}
jTextAreal.showText(“ ” + Total);

Question 51.
The following code has some error(s). Rewrite the correct code underlining all the corrections made. (All India 2011)

Int k=2; sum=0;
// Declaring k and sum as integer 
{
sum=k; 
k+=2;
}
whi1e(k =< 20)
jTextFi el dl(Integer.tostring(sum));

Answer:

int k=2, sum=0; // Declaring k
//and sum as Integer
do
{
sum=k; 
k+=2;
}
whi1e(k<=20);
jTextFieldl(Integer.toString(sum));

Question 52.
The following code has some error(s). Rewrite the correct code underlining all the corrections made. (All India 2011)

int sum=0, Step=5;
int I;
for(i=0; I=<5, i++)
{
Step+=5;
Sum+=Step;
}
jTextAreal.showText(“ ” + Sum)

Answer:

int Sum=0. Step=5; 
int I;
for(1=0; I<=5, I++)
{
Step+=5;
Sum+=Step;
}
jTextAreal.showText(" ” + Sum);

Question 53.
What do you mean by IDE?
Answer:
Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
An Integrated Development Environment (also known as integrated design environment, integrated debugging environment or interactive development environment) is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of:

• a source code editor
• a compiler and)or an interpreter
• build automation tools
• a debugger.

Sometimes a version control system and various tools are integrated to simplify the construction of a GUI. Many modern IDEs also have a class browser, an object browser and a class hierarchy diagram, for use with object-oriented software development.

Question 54.
What do you mean by Inspector Window?
Answer:
Inspector Window The Inspector window displays on the screen the hierarchy of all components contained in the currently opened form. These could be buttons, labels, panels, menus, etc.

Question 55.
Briefly explain Frame.
Answer:
Frame A frame is a top-level window with a title and a border. A frame is created through JFrame component. The applications created with a Graphical User Interface (GUI), usually include one or more frames.
For adding a form in the application, we have to follow these steps:

• Right click on the project name.
• From the shortcut menu select New.
• Then from the cascading menu select JFrame Form.

Question 56.
Differentiate between parent control and child control.
Answer:
Parent or Container Controls They act as a background for other controls,
E.g.,
Frame. When we delete a parent control, all its child controls also get deleted. When we move a parent control, all its child controls also move along with it.
Child Controls Controls placed inside a container control are called child controls,
E.g.,
TextField. Label, Button, etc.

Question 57.
What do you mean by a literal? What are the different types of literals used in java language?
Answer:
Literals The literais or the constants are those items, whose values cannot be changed during the execution of the program. There are number of literais used in a Java program. These are integer literais, floating literais, boolean literais, character literais, string literais and null literais.

1. Integer Literais The integer literais are the whole numbers without any fractional part. We can enter the integers as decimal numbers (base 10), octal numbers (base 8) and hexadecimal numbers (base 16). The decimal number is entered as a number which begins with a nonzero digit (e.g. 35), for an octal number we have to enter the number that begins with a zero (e.g. 026) and a hexadecimal number must start with Ox or OX. (e.g. Ox2B).
2. Floating literais The floating literais or the real numbers are those numbers which have fractional part. The numbers can be written either in fractional form or in exponential form. e.g. 35.45. To write &3 x iO, we have to write 5.3E03 or 5.3e03.
3. Boolean Literais The boolean type literais can have a boolean type value i.e. either true or false.
4. Character Literais The character literai is one character enclosed in a single quotes. e.g. ‘a’.
5. String Literais When multiple characters are entered such as a name of a person or a place. The string literais are enclosed by double quotes. e.g. “xyz”.
6. Null Literais The null type literal has only null value. It is formed by a literal null.

Question 58.
Briefly explain the numeric integral primitive data types used in Java?
Answer:
Primitive or hitrinsic Data Types The primitive data types are the basic data types of the Java language.
The primitive data type can be divided into following four categories:

1. Numeric Integral Primitive Types
2. byte The byte type occupies 1 byte of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of —128 to + 127.
   • short The short type occupies 2 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of —32768 to + 32767.
   • mt The integer type occupies 4 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of— 2147483648 to + 2147483647.
   • long The long type occupies 8 bytes of memory space. It can hold a signed integer in range of 9223372036854775808 to + 9223372036854775807.
3. Fractional Primitive Types
   • float The float type occupies 4 bytes of memory space. It can hold a single precision floating number in range of 1.401298464324817E—45 to 3.402823476638528860E+38 (1.4E—45 to 3.4E+38).
   • double The double type occupies 8 bytes of memory space. It can hold a double precision floating number in range of ± 4.9 E—324 to ± 1.798E+308.
4. Character Primitive Type char The char type is used to hold a single character. In Java unicode, encoding system is used for encoding the characters. It can hold a character variable range from O to 65535.
5. Boolean Primitive Type boolean The boolean type is used t represent a boolean value, i.e. true or false. The size of this datatype is not precisely defined.

Question 59.
What do you understand by a variable in Java? How is it differentiated from a literal or constant?
Answer:
A variable refers to an item whose value varies or changes during the execution of a Java program.
Whereas the literals or the constants are those items whose values cannot be changed during the execution of the program.

Question 60.
What do you understand by parse() method? What are the different forms of parse() method which are used in Java language?
Answer:
parse( ) Method Converts String to Numbers from a GUI component. The parse() method is used to convert a string into different numeric types. In Java, there are different types of parse methods are used. Some of them are as follows:

• Byte.parseByte(String s) Used to convert a String s into a byte type value.
• Short.parseShort(String s) Used to convert a String s into a short type value.
• Integer.present(Striflg s) Used to convert a String s into an mt type value.
• Long.parseLong(String s) Used to convert a String s into a long type value.
• Float.parseFloat(String s) Used to convert a String s into a float type value.
• Double.parseDouble(String s) Used to convert a String s into a double type value.

Question 61.
How can you produce a basic dialog box in Java?
Answer:
In Java language to produce a basic dialogbox, we can use the JOptionPane.showMessageDialog() method. This method displays a dialogbox containing the desired information with OK button.
To use the JOptionPane.showMessageDialog() method in a java application, we need to follow these steps:

(i) In the source editor, we need to type the following statement at the top most position

import javax.swing.JOption Pane;

(ii) Then do display the desired message we need to specify the desired text as per following syntax:

JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(Null, "This is a message”);

Question 62.
What is the use of logical operator? What are different logical operators used in Java language?
Answer:
Logical Operators, The logical operators are used to make a decision on two conditions. Logical operators are mainly used to control program flow. There are three logical operators used in Java.
These are as follows:

1. AND Operator (&&) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if both of the given conditions are true.
2. OR Operator (II) This operator combines two given conditions and evaluates the result to true, if either of the given conditions or both of the conditions are true.
3. NOT Operator (!) The NOT operator is a unary operator. It negates the given condition.

Question 63.
Briefly explain the different GUI output methods used in Java.
Answer:
For displaying output in a Java program, we can use either of two methods, i.e. System.out.print() or System.out.println()
System.out.print() This method displays the text and keeps the cursor in the same line.
System.out.println() This method displays the text and then moves the cursor to the next line.

Question 64.
What are the different constructs of Java program?
Answer:
Constructs of Java Program
In a Java program, the specified statements can be executed either sequentially, selectively or repeatedly.

• Sequence Normally, the statements of a Java program are executed sequentially, i.e. in the same order as they are specified in a program.
• Selection When we need to execute the program selectively, we have to use a conditional statement.
• Iteration When there is a need for executing certain statements repeatedly, we have to use a loop structure or iteration statement.

Question 65.
What is the use of following swing controls in Java
(i) JFrame
(ii) JLabel
(iii) jextField
(iv) JButton
Answer:
Basic Graphical Controls of Swing
Some of the commonly used controls of swing are as follows:

1. JFrame The JFrame is used to display a separate window with its own title bar.
2. JLabel The JLabel is used to display uneditable text. It means the user cannot change the information.
3. JTextField The JTextField is used to display a text box. In this text box, the user can input or edit the data.
   • JPasswordField does not directly display its content. Infact it uses a single character (usually an ASTERISK)
     to represent each character that it contains, so that it is possible to see how many characters have been typed, but
     not what they are, As its name suggests, JPasswordField is intended to be used as a simple way to accept a users
     password. JPasswordField is derived from JjextField.
4. JButton The JButton displays a push button. The push button is used to generate the associated action event.
5. JCheckBox The JCheckBox is used to display a checkbox. The checkbox is used to allow the user to select multiple choices out of given choices. When the user selects a particular choice, a is shown in front of it.
6. JList The JList displays a list for the application. We can select multiple elements from this list.
7. JComboBox The JComboBox provides a drop-down list of items. We can select an item from this list. Also, we can add a new item in the list. Infact, the combo box is a combination of a list and a text field.
8. JPanel The JPanel is used to organise the components in a GUI application. It is a supporting container, which cannot be displayed but can be added to another container.
9. JRadioButton The JRadioButton provides the radio buttons for the application. During the execution of a program, we can set these radio buttons either ON or OFF.

Note:
The area on the frame, where GUI components are placed is called content Pane

Question 66.
Why the following swing controls are used in Java
(i) ]CheckBox
(ii) ]List
(iii) ]ComboBox
(iv) ]RadioButton
Answer:
Controls of Swing
Some of the commonly used controls of swing are as follows:

1. JFrame The JFrame is used to display a separate window with its own title bar.
2. JLabel The JLabel is used to display uneditable text. It means the user cannot change the information.
3. JTextField The JTextField is used to display a text box. In this text box, the user can input or edit the data.
   • JPasswordField does not directly display its content. Infact it uses a single character (usually an ASTERISK)
     to represent each character that it contains, so that it is possible to see how many characters have been typed, but
     not what they are, As its name suggests, JPasswordField is intended to be used as a simple way to accept a users
     password. JPasswordField is derived from JjextField.
4. JButton The JButton displays a push button. The push button is used to generate the associated action event.
5. JCheckBox The JCheckBox is used to display a checkbox. The checkbox is used to allow the user to select multiple choices out of given choices. When the user selects a particular choice, a is shown in front of it.
6. JList The JList displays a list for the application. We can select multiple elements from this list.
7. JComboBox The JComboBox provides a drop-down list of items. We can select an item from this list. Also, we can add a new item in the list. Infact, the combo box is a combination of a list and a text field.
8. JPanel The JPanel is used to organise the components in a GUI application. It is a supporting container, which cannot be displayed but can be added to another container.
9. JRadioButton The JRadioButton provides the radio buttons for the application. During the execution of a program, we can set these radio buttons either ON or OFF.

Question 67.
What are Jump statements? Briefly describe jump statements used in Java,
Answer:
The jump statements are used to transfer the control of the program unconditionally with in a function. In Java there are mainly two jump statements are used. These are break statement and continue statement:

1. break statement The break statement can be used with for loop, while loop, do-while loop or switch. The break statement terminates the loop and moves the control to the next statement after the loop structure. The remaining statements of the loop will not be executed.
2. continue statement The continue is a jump statement. It will cause to skip the remaining statements in the loop and moves the control to the beginning of the loop for next iteration.

Question 68.
What is the difference between unary, binary and ternary operators?
Answer:
Operators can also be divided into three parts, on the basis of number of operands:

• Unary Operator An unary operator requires only one operand. Example of unary operators are unary ÷, unary —, + + and –. This operator performs task only on a single operand.
• Binary Operator A binary operator requires two operands. Examples of binary operators are +, -, *, / and%.
• Ternary Operator A ternary operator requires three operands. Example of ternary operator is ?: (the conditional operator).

Question 69.
A phone number, consisting of 10-digits, s stored in a string variable strPhone. Now, it is required to store this phone number in long type variable Long Phone. Write a Java statement to do this.
Answer:
The Java statement to store the content of strPhone (which is in String form) in long phone variable in long type format will be as follows:

long long phone =long.parseLong(strPhone)

Question 70.
What is RAD?
Answer:
RAD stands for Rapid Application Development. It describes the methods of developing software through the use of pre-programmed visual tools and wizards.

Question 71.
What do you mean by a keyword? Can we use keywords as identifiers?
Answer:
Keywords are the words, which are defined in the compiler itself. These keywords convey a special meaning to the language compiler. These cannot be used as identifier name.

Question 72.
What is an identifier? Mention the rules for forming the identifier.
Answer:
Identifiers are used for naming the different parts of the program like variables, objects, classes, functions, arrays, etc.
The rules of identifier are as follows:

1. Starts with an alphabet or an underscore( _).
2. Can have alphabets, numbers, underscore and dollar($) sign.
3. Can be of any length and cannot start with a digit.

Question 73.
What do you mean by primitive and reference data types?
Answer:
The data types used in Java can be divided into two categories:

1. Primitive or Intrinsic Data Types
   There are eight primitive data types in Java language. These are byte, short, int, long, float, double, char and boolean.
2. Non-Primitive or Reference Data Types
   These data types are constructed from primitive data types. These are classes, arrays and interfaces.

Question 74.
Write down the two forms of increment and decrement operators?
Answer:
In Java for increment and decrement, two operators are used. These are + +, which increases its operand by 1 and — which decreases its operand by 1. Both of these operators can be used in two forms namely prefix form and postfix form.
(i) Prefix Form In this form first change then use rule is followed.
E.g.,

int a, b=5; 
a = ++b;
System.out.println(a); 
System.out.print!n(b);

It shows the output as 6 and 6. (i.e. the value of variable a and b respectively).
(ii) Postfix Form In this form first use then change rule is followed.
E.g.,

int a, b=5; 
a—b++;
System.out.println(a); 
System.out.println(b);

It show the output as 5 and 6. (i.e. the value of variable a and b respectively).

Question 75.
Briefly describe about implicit and explicit type conversion?
Answer:
Implicit Type Conversion The implicit type conversion is performed by the compiler in an expression where different data types are used, so that the information is not lost.
E.g.,

int a=4;
float b=6.5, c; 
c=a+b;
System.out.println(c);

In this expression, a will be automatically converted to float type.
Explicit Type Conversion The explicit type conversion is a user defined conversion to a specific data type.
E.g.,

int x=4, y=8;
float z; z=(float)(x/y);
System.out.printl n(z);

Question 76.
Differentiate between entry controlled loop and exit controlled loop.
Answer:
There are two types of loops used in Java language, these are entry controlled loop and exit controlled loop.

1. Entry Controlled Loop In an entry controlled loop, the test condition is evaluated before entering into the loop.
   E.g., the while loop is an entry controlled loop.
2. Exit Controlled Loop In an exit controlled loop, the test condition is evaluated after the execution of the loop statements one time.
   E.g., the do-while loop is an exit controlled loop.

Question 77.
Why are the iteration or looping statements are used? Name the iteration statements used in Java.
Answer:
The iteration or looping statements are used in Java to execute a part of program containing some instructions repeatedly until certain given condition is satisfied.
In Java language, there are four types of loops are used, these are:

• for loop
• while loop
• do-while loop
• nested loop

Question 78.
Define term case sensitive? Is Java case sensitive?
Answer:
The term case sensitive refers to the different treatment of lowercase letters and uppercase letters. Java is a case sensitive language.

E.g.,

System.out.println() cannot be used as system.out.println() 
or 
SYSTEM.OUT.PRINTLN();

Question 79.
What is a unary operator? Briefly explain.
Answer:
Unary Operator An unary operator requires only one operand. Example of unary operators are unary + unary -, + + and –. This operator performs task only on a single operand.

Question 80.
What is the use of modulus (%) operator?
Answer:
The modulus operator is used to find out the remainder of a division operation,
E.g.,

int a=10, b=4, c;
c=a%b;
System.out.println(c):

Here, the output will be 2, i.e. the remainder of the division of 10 with 4.

Question 81.
What will be the result of following two expressions if initially x = 15?
(i) x++<=15
(ii) ++x<=15
Answer:
(i) True
(ii) False

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CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 14 Back-End Database Pdf free download is part of Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 14 Back-End Database.

CBSE Class 12 Informatics Practices Notes Chapter 14 Back-End Database

Small Database Systems
The term back-end database is most widely used among developers using small database programming systems, which can contain the end user application programming within the database as a single item. The developer must decide whether to include the application programming with the data in a single database or whether to separate them into two database files, according to the client/server model. For simple database applications, it is common for all programs to be stored with the data. This results in a single file and is easier to develop at the expense of scalability and concurrency.

Enterprise Database Systems
The term back-end database is not widely used among developers using larger or enterprise database systems. This is because enterprise database systems enforce the use of the client/server model and do not have the option to include the application programming within their databases. All such databases are used as back-end databases and so the term is redundant. Front-end and back-end are terms used to characterise program interfaces and services relative to the initial user of these interfaces and services. (The ‘user’ may be a human being or a program).

A ‘front-end’ application is that application with which the users interact directly. A ‘back-end’ application or program serves indirectly in support of the front-end services, usually by being closer to the required resource or having the capability to communicate with the required resource. The back-end application may interact directly with the front-end or typically a program called from an intermediate program that mediates front-end and back-end activities.

Purpose of a Database
The purpose of a database is to satisfy as many applications as possible, which typically makes them even more complex than special purpose database. Databases organise, store and retrieve data as fast as possible while protecting data integrity. Data retrieval would be considered the most important function. Back-end databases are used to store information that represent real life things, e.g. employees in a company or books in a library catalog are often stored in database.

Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC)
It is a structured process, which is imposed upon the development of the database portion of an application. A database developed by this structured process would be good for an effective application. On every step, database is involved and refined. The systematic approach used for developing a database is referred to as Database Development Life Cycle.

Database Initial Study
Phase I Analyse the Company Situation
In this phase we consider:

1. What is the organisation and its general environment?
2. What is its mission within that environment?
3. What is the organisation’s structure?
4. What is the requirements for changing system/database?

Phase II Define Problems and Constraints

1. How does the existing system function?
2. What input does the system require?
3. How is the system output used? And by whom?
4. What documents does the system generates?
5. What are the operational relationship among business units?
6. What are the limits and constraints imposed on the system?

Phase HI Define the Objective

1. Objective of the proposed system.
2. Does the system need to share the data with other system or users?
3. Will the system interface with the other existing or the future system in the company?

Phase IV Define Scope and Boundaries

1. Scope What is the extent (size or scale of something) of the design based on operational requirements?
2. Boundaries/Limits
   • Budget
   • Hardware and Software
   • External of organisational change is required.

Database Design
Database design is the process of producing a detailed data model of a database. This logical data model contains all the needed logical and physical design choices and physical storage parameters, needed to generate a design in a Data Definition Language (DDL), which can then be used to create a database. A fully attributed data model contains detailed attributes for each entity.

Conceptual Design
The data modeling is used to create an abstract database structure, which permits you to emphasise on the big picture without getting into details. Here you can divide this model into smaller chunks for better understanding. One of the most common technique used for conceptual design is Entity Relationship Model (ER Model). Model produced at this stage is of client world view not real world.

Logical Design
Logical design translates the conceptual design into the internal model for a selected DBMS. It specifies:

1. The high level design.
2. What tables and connections between them should exist?
3. It recognises entities in your model and relationship between them.
4. Dividing a table into smaller table and associated with relations called normalisation.

Logical design comes after conceptual design. So, it ensures:

1. What are the columns in each table?
2. It includes mapping of all objects in the model to the specific constructs used by the selected database software.
3. In RDBMS, the logical design include the design of tables, indexes, views, transactions, etc.

Physical Design
Physical design is where you translate the expected schemas into actual database structure. At this time, you have to map entities to tables, relationships to foreign key, unique identifiers to unique key. Translating your schemas into actual database structures requires creating the following:

1. Partitions
2. Indexes
3. Constraints
4. Access-control
5. Implementation of some business rule that could not be modelled earlier.

Implementation and Loading
This phase of life cycle:

1. Creates the database storage group.
2. Creates the database within the storage group.
3.  Assigns the rights to use the database to a database administrator.
4. Creates table space (storage location where the actual data underlying database objects can be kept) within the database.
5. Creates table(s) within the table space(s).
6. Assigns rights to the table spaces and the tables within specified table spaces.
7. Loads the data.
8. Backup and recovery.

Testing and Evaluation
Testing and Evaluation (a way to determine the subject merit, worth and significance, using the criteria governed by a set of standards) phase occur in parallel with the application programming.
Programmers use database tools (e.g. report generators, screen painters and menu generator) to prototype the application during the coding of the programs.
If the implementation fails then the options to enhance the system are:

1. Fine-tuning the specific system and DBMS configuration parameters.
2. Modify the physical design.
3. Upgrade or change the DBMS and hardware platform.
4. Modification of logical design.

Operation
After passing the evaluation stages, comes the operation phase.
In the beginning of the operational phase always start the process of system evolution, where it changes from a simple to a more complex form.

Maintenance
In this phase, the following points need to be performed:

1. Preventive maintenance.
2. Corrective maintenance.
3. Adaptive maintenance.
4. Assignment and maintenance of access permissions.
5. Generation of database access.
6. Periodic security audits.

Storage Manager
A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application program and queries.

Transaction Manager
The transaction manager is responsible for ensuring that the database remains in a consistent state despite system failures. The transaction manager also ensures that concurrent transaction executions proceed without any conflicts.

Entity Relationship Model
The Entity Relationship (ER) data model is based on a perception of a real world, which consists a set of basic objects called entities and relationships among these objects. The ER model was introduced by P.P.Chen. Chen not only introduced ER model but he also introduced a corresponding diagramming technique.

In software engineering, an Entity Relationship model (ER model for short) is an abstract way to describe a database. It usually starts with a relational database, which stores data in tables. Some of the data in these tables point to data in other tables.
Some terminology related to ER model are as follows:

1. Entity An ‘Entity’ is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects. An entity is any object, place, person, concept or activity about which an enterprise records data. While diagramming, entities are named and represented by a rectangle as shown in figure:

• Entity type An entity type (also called entity set) is a set of entities of same type, i. e. which share common properties, e.g. the set of all persons having an account at a bank, can be defined as the entity type CUSTOMER. Similarly, TEACHER, SUBJECT and STUDENT are also entity types or entity sets.
• Entity instance An entity instance is an instance of entity type, i.e. an entity instance is a specific individual, thing or object, e.g. ‘Shyam’ is an instance of entity type STUDENT; ‘Computer’ is an instance of entity type SUBJECT and so on.

2. Relationship A relationship is defined as an association among several entities. It connects two or more entities into a relationship. It represented by a diamond o. e.g. there is a relationship between artist and song.
This relationship represents the fact that an artist performs several songs and a song is performed by many artists. You may name this relationship as PERFORMS. A relationship type defines the association of entity types (e.g. artist-song relationship) and a relationship instance is an association of entity instances (e.g. shyam – tumbin relationship).

An entity can associate with itself also. e.g. in an organisation, one employee may marry another employee. Such a relationship can be represented diagrammatically as shown in figure.

There can be following types of relationship:

• One-to-One Relationship When one entity is related with another entity through a common attribute. Then such relation is known as one-to-one relationship.
• One-to-Many Relationship When one entity is related with more than one entities through a common attribute or one attribute of an entity is related with more than one attributes of another table. Then such relation is known as one-to-many relationship.
• Many-to-Many Relationship When more than one attributes of one entity is related with more than one attributes of another table. Then such relation is known as many-to-many relationship.

3. Attributes An entity is represented by a set of attributes. An attribute is a property of a given entity. An attribute instance is a particular property of an individual entity instance. An attribute type is a property of an entity type. Attributes are represented through ellipses, labelled with the name of the property. The ‘Key attributes’ are underlined.
Figure shows an entity alongwith its attributes:

In figure, RollNo is underlined because it is the key attribute. It has unique value for each student.
There are two types of attributes:

• Composite attribute If an attribute is a group of properties, it is called composite attribute, e.g. address is a composite attribute as it is a group of sub-properties such as house no., area, city, state, etc.
• Single-valued and multi-valued attribute Attributes can either be single-valued if they are capable of storing single value or be multi-valued if they are capable of storing multiple values, e.g. if an entity STUDENT has following attributes:
  RollNo, Name, Class, Subject

Then the attribute’s RollNo, Name and Class can hold one value whereas, attribute subject can hold multiple values as the student can study multiple subjects. Thus, the attribute’s RollNo, Name and Class are single valued attributes but the attribute subject is a multi-valued attribute.

The front-end and back-end interact with one another through database connectivity. Database connectivity refers to a programming interface that lets a front-end access a database on a back-end, via some means. When database connectivity is implemented in a Java application, then it is known as Java Database Connectivity, i.e. JDBC. JDBC was based largely on Microsoft’s ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) but has largely surpassed it. Compared to ODBC, JDBC has more flexible APIs which programmers can use in their applications. JDBC has all the advantages that ODBC has and caters to the needs of programmers under a variety of platforms.

JDBC provides Java developers with an industry standard API (An API or Application Programming Interface is a set of classes, methods and resources that programmers can use to do their work.) for database independent connectivity between Java Applications (Applets, Servlets, JSPs, EJBs, etc.) and a wide range of relational database management systems such as Oracle, Informix, Microsoft SQL Server and Sybase. JDBC accomplishes most of what it does through a native API, that translates Java methods to native calls.
In its simplest form, JDBC makes it possible to do the following:

1. Connect to a database.
2. Execute SQL statements to query your database.
3. Generate query results.
4. Perform updates, inserts and deletions.
5. Execute stored procedures.

The only requirement to create a JDBC application is that the driver for JDBC connectivity should be available and installed.

Benefits of Database Connectivity

1. Any database can be accessed from within the application code if its connectivity driver is available.
2. Distribution of application logic in terms of front-end and back-end leads to better performance.
3. Since, database handling is entirely with back-end. The data is safely and securely processed. In other words, enhanced database security.
4. Some connectivity drivers lead to better performance, portability, optimised performance of the application.

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CBSE Class 6 Hindi पत्र-लेखन Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 6 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 6 Hindi Unseen Passages पत्र-लेखन.

CBSE Class 6 Hindi पत्र-लेखन

पत्र-लेखन विचारों के आदान-प्रदान को सशक्त माध्यम है। इसी के माध्यम से लोग अपने मन की बात अपने से दूर रहने वाले व्यक्ति तक पहुँचाते हैं। पत्र-लेखन एक कला है। पत्र लिखने के लिए निम्नलिखित बातों का ध्यान रखना चाहिए।

• पत्र की भाषा सरल, स्पष्ट व सरस होनी चाहिए।
• पत्र भेजने वाले का नाम, पता, दिनांक आदि का स्पष्ट उल्लेख होना चहिए।
• परीक्षा भवन में पत्र लिखते समय अपने नाम के स्थान पर क, ख, ग लिखना चाहिए। यदि प्रश्न-पत्र में किसी के नाम का उल्लेख किया गया हो, तो वही नाम लिखना चाहिए।
• पत्र प्राप्तकर्ता की आयु, संबंध, योग्यता आदि को ध्यान में रखते हुए भाषा का प्रयोग करना चाहिए।
• पत्र के अंत में लिखने वाले और प्राप्त करने वाले के संबंधों के अनुरूप शब्दावली का प्रयोग अवश्य करना चाहिए।

पत्र के प्रकार

पत्रों को दो वर्गों में विभक्त किया गया है-
(क) औपचारिक पत्र
(ख) अनौपचारिक पत्र

(क) औपचारिक पत्र – औपचारिक पत्र ऐसे लोगों को लिखे जाते हैं जिनसे लिखने वाले का कोई व्यक्तिगत या पारिवारिक संबंध नहीं होता है। औपचारिक पत्रों को तीन वर्गों में विभाजित किया जाता है।

1. प्रार्थना पत्र – अवकाश, शिकायत, सुधार, आवेदन के लिए लिखे गए पत्र आदि।
2. कार्यालयी पत्र – किसी सरकारी अधिकारी अथवा विभाग को लिखे गए पत्र आदि।
3. व्यावसायिक पत्र – दुकानदार, प्रकाशक, व्यापारी, कंपनी आदि को लिखे गए पत्र आदि।

(ख) अनौपचारिक पत्र – इस वर्ग में वैयक्तिक तथा पारिवारिक पत्र आते हैं। इस प्रकार के पत्र माता-पिता, भाई-बहन, दादा-दादी, मित्र-सहेली तथा संबंधियों को लिखे जाते हैं।

पत्र के अंग

पत्र के निम्नलिखित अंग होते हैं-

• भेजने का स्थान, दिनांक और पता – पहले यह दाईं ओर लिखा जाता था, आजकल बाईं ओर से लिखने का प्रचलन हो गया है।
• संबोधन एवं अभिवादन – जिसे पत्र लिखा जा रहा है, उसकी आयु, योग्यता संबंध आदि के अनुरूप शब्द।
• विषयवस्तु – पत्र के अंत में पत्र लेखक पाने वाले से अपने संबंध के अनुरूप शब्दावली का प्रयोग करता है तथा उसके नीचे हस्ताक्षर भी करता है।
• समापन

पत्र लिखते समय ध्यान रखने योग्य बातें-

अभ्यास-प्रश्न

औपचारिक पत्र
1. विद्यालय छोड़ने का प्रमाण-पत्र प्रदान करने के लिए प्रधानाचार्य को प्रार्थना पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
दिल्ली पब्लिक स्कूल
आर० के० पुरम, नई दिल्ली
दिनांक ……..
महोदय
सविनय निवेदन है कि मैं आपके विद्यालय की छठी ‘ए’ कक्षा का छात्र हूँ। मेरे पिता जी को स्थानांतरण (तबादला )राजस्थान के जोधपुर शहर में हो गया है। पिता जी के साथ पूरा परिवार भी जोधपुर जा रहा है। मेरा यहाँ अकेले रहना संभव नहीं है इसलिए मैं भी जोधपुर में ही शिक्षा प्राप्त करूंगा।

अतः आपसे विनम्र निवेदन है कि मुझे विद्यालय छोड़ने का प्रमाण-पत्र प्रदान करें ताकि मैं वहाँ किसी अच्छे विद्यालय की छठी कक्षा में प्रवेश ले सकें। इसके लिए मैं सदा आभारी रहूँगा। आपका आज्ञाकारी छात्र
ओजस्व तिवारी
छठी ‘ए’ अनुक्रमांक-2
दिनांक ……

2. विद्यालय के प्रधानाचार्य को शुल्क माफ़ कराने के लिए प्रार्थना-पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
सेंट स्टीफन स्कूल
जनकपुरी, नई दिल्ली
दिनांक …..
विषय-शुल्क माफ़ करने के संबंध में
महोदय
निवेदन यह है कि मैं आपके विद्यालय में कक्षा छठी ‘ब’ का छात्र हूँ। मेरे पिता जी एक निजी कंपनी में लिपिक के पद पर कार्य करते हैं। उनका वेतन मात्र 8000 रुपये मासिक है जिससे परिवार का भरण-पोषण मुश्किल से हो पाता है। परिवार में मेरे दादा-दादी जी भी हैं जिनकी जिम्मेदारी भी मेरे पिता पर है। मेरे अलावा मेरे दो भाई-बहन भी पढ़ते हैं। इन परिस्थितियों में मेरे पिता जी मेरा शिक्षण शुल्क देने में असमर्थ हैं।

मान्यवर, मैंने पिछली पाँचवीं कक्षा के सभी वर्गों में सर्वोच्च स्थान प्राप्त किया था। अनेक जिला स्तरीय व राज्य स्तरीय पुरस्कार प्राप्त कर चुका हूँ। अतः आपसे करबद्ध प्रार्थना है कि मेरा पूरा शुल्क माफ़ करने की कृपा करें ताकि मुझे अपनी पढ़ाई अधूरी छोड़ने के लिए विवश न होना पड़े।

आपकी इस कृपा के लिए मैं आपका आजीवन आभारी रहूँगा। सधन्यवाद।
आपका आज्ञाकारी शिष्य
राजा
कक्षा छठी ‘ब’ अनुक्रमांक-2
दिनांक ………

3. विद्यालय के प्रधानाचार्य को अवकाश के लिए प्रार्थना-पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
माउंट आबू पब्लिक स्कूल
बी०जे० वेस्ट शालीमार बाग
नई दिल्ली
विषय-दो दिन अवकाश के संबंध में।
महोदय सविनय निवेदन है कि मैं इस विद्यालय की छठी ‘बी’ की छात्रा हूँ। कल विद्यालय से वापस आने के बाद से मुझे बुखार आ गया और सिर में दर्द हो गया। डॉक्टर ने दवाएँ देकर दो दिन आराम करने की सलाह दी है। इस कारण मैं दिनांक 28 एवं 29 सितंबर 20xx तक विद्यालय में उपस्थित होने में असमर्थ हूँ।

अतः आपसे अनुरोध है कि दो दिनों का अवकाश स्वीकृत करने की कृपा करें।
सधन्यवाद
आपकी आज्ञाकारी शिष्या
अंशु तिवारी
छठी ‘ए’ अनुक्रमांक-12
दिनांक

4. अपने विद्यालय के प्रधानाचार्य को अपना सेक्शन बदलवाने के लिए प्रार्थना-पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
प्रधानाचार्य महोदय
सर्वोदय विद्यालय
सेक्टर-8 रोहिणी दिल्ली
विषय-अपना सेक्शन बदलवाने के संबंध में ।
मान्यवर
सविनय निवेदन है कि मैं आपके विद्यालय में छठी ‘सी’ का छात्र हूँ। मैंने इसी माह आपके विद्यालय में प्रवेश लिया है। मैं रानीबाग से आता हूँ।

रानीबाग से ही छठी कक्षा में पढ़ने वाले तीन और छात्र भी आते हैं, परंतु वे छठी ‘बी’ वर्ग में हैं। मैं चाहता हूँ कि आप मुझे भी छठी ‘बी’ वर्ग में स्थानांतरित करने की स्वीकृति प्रदान कर दें। जिससे मैं भी उन छात्रों के साथ मिलकर पढ़ाई कर सकें तथा किसी दिन अनुपस्थित रहने की स्थिति में उनसे उस दिन के गृहकार्य की जानकारी प्राप्त कर सकें।

मुझे आशा है कि आप मेरी प्रार्थना पर विचार करते हुए मुझे छठी ‘बी’ कक्षा में स्थानांतरित करने की स्वीकृति प्रदान करेंगे।
सधन्यवाद
आपका आज्ञाकारी शिष्य
आयुष तिवारी
कक्षा छठी ‘सी’ अनुक्रमांक-5
दिनांक …………

5. अपने क्षेत्र की सफ़ाई के लिए नगर निगम के स्वास्थ्य अधिकारी को पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
स्वास्थ्य अधिकारी
नोएडा नगर निगम
सेक्टर-4 गौतमबुद्ध नगर
गाजियाबाद
विषय-मोहल्ले की सफ़ाई के संबंध में पत्र
महोदय
आपको ध्यान नोएडा सेक्टर-4 के क्षेत्र में फैली गंदगी की ओर आकर्षित करना चहता हूँ। यहाँ की सड़कें महीनों से कूड़े से भरी हुई। हैं, रास्ते से निकलना भी दूभर हो चुका है। सड़क के आसपास व खुले स्थानों पर कूड़ा पड़ा है। चारों ओर मच्छरों का साम्राज्य है। गंदगी के कारण मलेरिया, वायरल तथा डेंगू फैलने का भी खतरा बना हुआ है। यहाँ के सफ़ाई कर्मचारी बहुत लापरवाह हैं। मुश्किल से एक सप्ताह में एक बार आते हैं। कूड़ा उठाने के नाम पर अलग से पैसे की माँग करते हैं। यहाँ कोई कूड़ेदान भी नहीं रखा गया है। अतः आपसे अनुरोध है कि इस मामले में व्यक्तिगत रूप से हस्तक्षेप करते हुए यहाँ की सफ़ाई व्यवस्था को ठीक कराने की कृपा करें।
सधन्यवाद
नोएडा सेक्टर-4 क्षेत्र के निवासी
दिनांक …………

6. अपने क्षेत्र के पत्रवाहक के डाक-वितरण में गड़बड़ी की शिकायत करते हुए डाकपाल को पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
डाकपाल महोदय
मुख्य डाकघर नोएडा
प्रधान डाकघर गाजियाबाद
उत्तर प्रदेश
विषय-डाकिए की लापरवाही के संबंध में
महोदय
मैं अपका ध्यान नोएडा के पत्रवाहक की लापरवाही और डाक विभाग में गड़बड़ी की ओर दिलाना चाहता हूँ। हमारे क्षेत्र में पत्रवाहक समय पर डाक वितरित नहीं करता है। बीच-बीच में वह कई-कई दिन डाक वितरित करने के लिए नहीं आता तथा पत्रों को आँगन में या इधर-उधर फेंक जाता है जिससे कई बार वे हवा से इधर-उधर भी उड़ जाते हैं। हमें कई बार महत्त्वपूर्ण पत्र भी समय पर प्राप्त नहीं होते हैं। इससे पूरे क्षेत्र के निवासियों को बहुत परेशानियों का सामना करना पड़ रहा है। इस कारण अनेक नवयुवक साक्षात्कार पर नहीं पहुँच सकते हैं।

अतः आपसे निवेदन है कि आप पत्रवाहक के कार्य की जाँच करें और उसके खिलाफ कार्यवाही करें।
भवदीय
आयुष रंजन तिवारी
नोएडा सेक्टर-4
उत्तर प्रदेश

7. अपने मोहल्ले में चोरी की बढ़ती घटनाओं को रोकने के संबंध में थानाध्यक्ष को पत्र लिखिए।

सेवा में
थाना अध्यक्ष महोदय
लोनी गाज़ियाबाद
विषय-मोहल्ले में बढ़ती चोरी की घटनाओं के संबंध में।
महोदय
निवेदन यह है कि मै डी.एल.एफ. अंकुर विहार का निवासी हूँ। मैं आपका ध्यान अपने मोहल्ले डी.एल.एफ. अंकुर विहार की ओर आकर्षित करना चहता हूँ। यहाँ गत एक माह से लगातार चोरी की घटनाएँ अचानक बढ़ गई हैं। पिछले सप्ताह बी-ब्लॉक में चोरों ने चार दुकानों का शटर काटकर चोरी की। उससे दो दिन पहले जे.पी. ज्वेलर्स नामक दुकान का शटर तोड़कर सेफ तथा ढेरों आभूषण उठा ले गए। वे यह काम इतनी सफ़ाई से करते हैं, उन्हें किसी कानून का कोई डर नहीं रह गया है।

अतः आपसे अनुरोध है कि इस मामले में व्यक्तिगत हस्तक्षेप करते हुए आवश्यक कार्यवाही करें ताकि जनता भयमुक्त होकर रह सके।
धन्यवाद सहित
भवदीय
राम किशन शर्मा
बी० 4/13 डी०एल०एफ०
लोनी गाजियाबाद।

8. पुस्तक विक्रेता से पुस्तकें मँगवाने के लिए पत्र लिखिए।

बी 4/13 डी०एल०एफ०
अंकुर विहार, लोनी
गाजियाबाद।
सेवा में
प्रबंधक महोदय
फ्रैंक एजुकेशनल ऐड्स प्रालि
A-39, सैक्टर-4 नोएडा।
महोदय
मुझे आपके द्वारा प्रकाशित निम्नलिखित पुस्तकों की आवश्यकता है। आपसे अनुरोध है कि ये पुस्तकें वी०पी०पी० द्वारा ऊपर लिखे मेरे पते पर भिजवाने का कष्ट करें। पत्र के साथ ही मैं अग्रिम धनराशि के रूप में एक हजार रुपये का ड्राफ्ट भेज रहा हूँ। शेष राशि वी०पी०पी० मिलते समय अदा कर दूंगा।

पुस्तकें भेजते समय अच्छी तरह जाँच लें-पुस्तकें कटी-फटी न हों, नीवनतम संस्करण की हों तथा उसकी पैकिंग ठीक प्रकार से की गई हो। कृपया नियमानुसार कमीशन की छूट दें।

पुस्तक का नाम
1. हिंदी व्याकरण भाग-6 प्रतियाँ 1
2. English Grammar & Composition प्रतियाँ 1
3. हिंदी रीडर भाग-6 प्रतियाँ 1
4. Mathematics भाग-6 प्रतियाँ 2

धन्यवाद सहित
संजीव तिवारी

अनौपचारिक पत्र

1. अपने मित्र को अपने जन्म दिन पर आमंत्रित करते हुए पत्र लिखिए।

‘भारद्वाज निवास’
B-4/13
डी०एल०एफ० अंकुर विहार
लोनी गाजियाबाद
दिनांक …
प्रिय मित्र अंकित
मधुर स्नेह
मैं यहाँ सकुशल हूँ। आशा करता हूँ कि तुम भी सपरिवार सकुशल होगे। तुम्हें याद दिलाने की आवश्यकता नहीं है कि मेरा जन्मदिन 03 दिसंबर को आता है। हर वर्ष की तरह इस बार भी मैं अपना जन्म दिन धूमधाम से मना रहा हूँ। मैं तुम्हें अपने जन्म दिन पर निमंत्रित करता हूँ। मैंने अपने सभी मित्रों को बुलाया है। तुम्हें भी अवश्य आना है।

कार्यक्रम गत वर्ष की भाँति ही रहेगा। प्रातः 10:00 बजे हवन, दोपहर का भोजन तथा सायंकाल 6:00 बजे केक काटने की रस्म एवं गीत-संगीत का कार्यक्रम।

मुझे आशा एवं विश्वास है कि तुम नियत समय पर पहुँच जाओगे।
धन्यवाद
तुम्हारा मित्र
आयुष रंजन

2. अपने मित्र को पत्र लिखकर अपनी ऐतिहासिक यात्रा का वर्णन कीजिए।

प्रिय मित्र ओजस्व
सस्नेह नमस्कार
पिछले पत्र में तुमने मुझसे पूछा था कि इस बार गरमी की छुट्टियाँ कैसे बितायी थीं। उसी क्रम में मैं यह पत्र लिख रहा हूँ। मित्र, गरमी की छुट्टियों के प्रारंभ होने के दो दिन बाद ही कुछ ऐतिहासिक स्थलों को देखने के लिए गए। शुरुआत में आगरे का ताजमहल देखा। फिर वहाँ से हम ट्रेन द्वारा राजस्थान के ऐतिहासिक स्थलों को देखने गए। वहाँ से उदयपुर, जयपुर, चित्तौड़गढ़ आदि के प्रसिद्ध किले तथा वस्तुएँ देखीं। उन्हें देखकर हमें बहुत आनंद का अनुभव हुआ। आशा है तुम भी वहाँ के ऐतिहासिक स्थलों को देखकर आनंद को अनुभव करोगे।

माता-पिता को मेरा प्रणाम कहना एवं छोटू को प्यार।
तुम्हारा अभिन्न मित्र।
सोना बाबू।

3. अपने छोटे भाई को परीक्षा में सफलता पाने पर बधाई-पत्र लिखिए।

छात्रावास (कक्ष सं. 5)
ग्रीन फील्ड स्कूल
ग्रीन पार्क नई दिल्ली।
प्रिय अनुज नवीन
स्नेहाशीष
यहाँ मैं सकुशल हूँ। आशा है तुम वहाँ सकुशल होगे। कल ही पिता जी का पत्र मिला। पत्र पढ़कर पता चला कि इस वर्ष तुम कक्षा में प्रथम आए हो और सभी विषयों में ‘ए’ श्रेणी प्राप्त की है। सच मानो, पढ़कर बहुत खुशी हुई। मेरी ईश्वर से प्रार्थना है कि सफलता सदैव तुम्हारे कदम चूमे और तुम आसमान की ऊँचाई तक पहुँचो।

मैंने तुम्हें वचन दिया था कि अगर तुम कक्षा में प्रथम आओगे तो एक अच्छी सी घड़ी मेरी ओर से तम्हें पुरस्कार स्वरूप प्राप्त होगी। दशहरे की छुट्टियों में जब मैं घर जाऊँगा तो तुम्हें लेकर बाज़ार जाऊँगा और तुम्हारी पसंद की घड़ी दिलाऊँगा। माँ और पिता जी को मेरा प्रणाम कहना।।
तुम्हारा अग्रज सौरभ ।

4. मित्र को अपने बड़े भाई के विवाह में सम्मिलित होने के लिए पत्र लिखिए।

नवजीवन स्कूल
डी०एल०एफ०
अंकुर विहार, लोनी
गाजियाबाद
प्रिय राजेश
सप्रेम नमस्ते
तुम्हें यह जानकर अत्यंत प्रसन्नता होगी कि मेरे बड़े भाई प्रणव भारद्वाज का शुभ विवाह गाज़ियाबाद के स्कूल शिक्षक अनंत त्रिपाठी की सुपुत्री सीमा से इसी मास की 25 तारीख को होना निश्चित हुआ है। इस विवाह में तुम जैसे सभी मित्र तथा बंधुओं का शामिल होना आवश्यक है। अतः तुमको भाई साहब की बारात में भी चलना पड़ेगा। विवाहोत्सव का कार्यक्रम इस प्रकार है

25 तारीख एक बजे प्रीतिभोज
25 तारीख सायं 5 बजे घुड़चढ़ी
25 तारीख बारात का गाजियाबाद प्रस्थान सायं 5 बजे।

आशा है कि तुम 23 तारीख को पहुँच जाओगे। नवीन, रंजीत तथा विशाल भी 23 तारीख को यहाँ पहुँच जायेंगे।
तुम्हारा मित्र
तुषार
दिनांक …….

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CBSE Class 6 Hindi निबंध-लेखन Pdf free download is part of NCERT Solutions for Class 6 Hindi. Here we have given NCERT Class 6 Hindi Unseen Passages निबंध-लेखन.

CBSE Class 6 Hindi निबंध-लेखन

निबंध का अर्थ है-बँधा हुआ यानी एक सूत्र में बँधी हुई रचना। जब किसी विषय पर क्रमबद्धता के साथ विचारों को प्रकट किया जाता है, तो ऐसा लेख निबंध कहलाता है। निबंध किसी भी विषय पर लिखा जा सकता है। साधारण रूप से निबंध के विषय परिचित होते हैं यानी जिनके बारे में हम सुनते, देखते व पढ़ते रहते हैं, जैसे धार्मिक त्योहार, विभिन्न प्रकार की समस्याएँ राष्ट्रीय त्योहार, मौसम आदि। निबंध लिखते समय निम्नलिखित बातों पर ध्यान देना आवश्यक होता है।

• निबंध निर्धारित शब्द सीमा के अंतर्गत ही लिखा गया हो।
• निबंध के वाक्य क्रमबद्ध और सुसंबद्ध होने चाहिए तथा विचार मौलिक हों।
• निबंध की भाषा सरल, स्पष्ट व प्रभावशाली होनी चाहिए।
• सभी अनुच्छेद एक-दूसरे से जुड़े हों।
• निबंध में लिखे वाक्य छोटे और प्रभावशाली होने चाहिए।
• निबंध लिखने के बाद उसे एक बार अवश्य पढ़ लें, ताकि यदि लिखते समय कोई बात छूट गई हो तो वह फिर से लिखी जा सके।

निबंधों की शब्द सीमा
कक्षा 6 – 150 से 175 शब्द
कक्षा 7 – 175 से 200 शब्द
कक्षा 8 – 200 से 250 शब्द
निबंध कई प्रकार के हो सकते हैं; जैसे वर्णनात्मक, विचारात्मक तथा भावात्मक। मुख्य रूप से निबंध के निम्नलिखित तीन अंग होते हैं।

भूमिका – भूमिका ऐसी होनी चाहिए जो निबंध के प्रति पढ़ने वाले की उत्सुकता को बढ़ाए।
विषय विस्तार – इसमें तीन से चार अनुच्छेदों में विषय के विभिन्न पहलुओं पर अपने विचार प्रकट किए जाते हैं। इसमें मुख्य भाषा विषय से संबंधित तथा विस्तृत होता है।
उपसंहार – यह निबंध के अंत में लिखा जाता है। इस अंग में निबंध में लिखी गई बातों के सार के रूप में एक अनुच्छेद में लिखा जाता है। आगे कुछ छात्रोपयोगी निबंध नमूने के तौर पर दिए जा रहे हैं।

निबंध लेखन का अभ्याम

1. विद्यार्थी जीवन
विद्यार्थी का जीवन समाज व देश की अमूल्य निधि होता है। विद्यार्थी समाज की रीढ़ है, क्योंकि समाज तथा देश की प्रगति इन्हीं पर निर्भर करती है? अतः विद्यार्थी जीवन पूर्णतया अनुशासित होना चाहिए। वे जितने अनुशासित बनेंगे उतना ही अच्छा समाज व देश बनेगा।

विद्यार्थी जीवन को स्वर्णिम काले है। इसी काल में भावी जीवन की तैयारी की जाती है तथा शक्तियों का विकास किया जाता है। इस काल में बालक के मस्तिष्क रूपी स्लेट पर कुछ अंकित हो जाता है। इसी काल में भावी जीवन की भव्य इमारत की आधारशिला का निर्माण होता है। यह आधारशिला जितनी मजबूत होगी, भावी जीवन उतना ही सुदृढ़ होगा। इस काल में विद्याध्ययन तथा ज्ञान प्राप्ति पर ध्यान न देने वाले विद्यार्थी जीवन के किसी भी क्षेत्र में सफल नहीं हो पाते।

विद्यार्थी जीवन की महत्ता को जानते हुए प्राचीन काल में विद्यार्थी को घरों से दूर गुरुकुल में रहकर विद्याध्ययन करना पड़ता था, गुरु के कठोर अनुशासन को उसे पालन करना पड़ता था। गुरु अपने शिष्यों को तपा-तपाकर स्वर्ण बना देता था।

लेकिन आधुनिक युग में विद्यार्थी विद्यालयों में विद्याध्ययन करता है। आज गुरु ओं के कठोर अनुशासन का अभाव है। आज शिक्षा का संबंध धन से जोड़ा जाता है। विद्यार्थी यह समझता है कि वह धन देकर विद्या प्राप्त कर रहा है। उसमें गुरुओं के प्रति सम्मान के भाव की कमी पाई जाती है। शिक्षा में नैतिक मूल्यों का कोई स्थान नहीं है। इन्हीं कारणों से आज विद्यार्थी अनुशासनहीन पश्चिमी सभ्यता का अनुयायी तथा भारतीय संस्कृति से दूर हो गया है।
आदर्श विद्यार्थी के गुणों की चर्चा करते हुए कहा गया है
काक चेष्टा बको ध्यानं श्वान निद्रा तथैव च।
अल्पाहारी गृहत्यागी विद्यार्थिन पंचलक्षणं ॥

अर्थात विद्यार्थी को कौए के समान चेष्ठावान, बगुले के समान एकाग्रचित्त, कुत्ते के समान कम सोने वाला, कम खाने वाला तथा विद्याध्ययन के लिए त्याग करने वाला होना चाहिए। दुर्भाग्य का विषय है कि आधुनिक विद्यार्थी में इन गुणों का अभाव पाया जाता है। विद्यार्थी ही देश के भविष्य होते हैं। इसलिए विद्यार्थियों में विनयशीलता, संयम आज्ञाकारिता जैसे गुणों का विकास किया जाना चाहिए। इसके लिए उन्हें कुसंगति से बचना चाहिए तथा आलस्य का परित्याग करके विद्यार्थी जीवन के लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए प्रयत्नशील होना चाहिए।

आज के विद्यार्थी वर्ग के पतन के लिए वर्तमान शिक्षा पद्धति भी जिम्मेदार है। अतः उसमें परिवर्तन लाने की आवश्यकता है। शिक्षाविदों का यह दायित्व है कि वे देश की भावी पीढ़ी को अच्छे संस्कार देकर उन्हें प्रबुद्ध तथा कर्तव्यनिष्ठ नागरिक बनाएँ तो साथ ही विद्यार्थियों को भी कर्तव्य है कि वे भारतीय संस्कृति के उच्चादर्शों को अपने जीवन में उतारने के लिए कृतसंकल्प हों।

2. स्वतंत्रता दिवस
स्वतंत्र रहने की इच्छा केवल मनुष्य में ही नहीं पशु, पक्षियों में भी पाई जाती है। हमारे देश को स्वतंत्र कराने के लिए हमारे देश के अनेक नेताओं ने अपना बलिदान दिया था उन्हीं के बलिदान के परिणामस्वरूप 15 अगस्त 1947 में हमें अंग्रेजी शासन से मुक्ति मिली। थी। इसी दिन से भारत एक स्वतंत्र देश गिना जाने लगा। तब से लेकर हर वर्ष 15 अगस्त स्वतंत्रता दिवस के रूप में मनाया जाता है। स्वतंत्रता प्राप्ति के उपलक्ष्य में प्रतिवर्ष 15 अगस्त को स्वतंत्रता दिवस राष्ट्रीय पर्व के रूप में आयोजित किया जाता है।

स्वतंत्रता दिवस पर पूरे देश में अनेक प्रकार के कार्यक्रम होते हैं जिनमें देशभक्तों को याद किया जाता है तथा राष्ट्रीय ध्वज फ हराया जाता है। दिल्ली में ऐतिहासिक लाल किले पर भारत के प्रधानमंत्री प्रातः ध्वजारोहण करते हैं। राष्ट्रीय ध्वज को तोपों की सलामी दी जाती है। ध्वजारोहण के पश्चात प्रधानमंत्री देशवासियों के नाम अपना संदेश देते हैं। इस कार्यक्रम को दूरदर्शन पर सीधा प्रसारित किया जाता है।

स्वतंत्रता दिवस का राष्ट्रीय पर्व हमें देश के प्रति अपने कर्तव्यों को याद दिलाता है। हमारा कर्तव्य है कि उन देश भक्तों की कुरबानी को न भूलें जिन्होंने अपने मस्तक देकर हमें स्वतंत्रता का उपहार प्रदान किया। इस दिन हमें देश की एकता और अखंडता की रक्षा । का प्रण लेना चाहिए।

3. मेरा जीवन लक्ष्य
प्रत्येक व्यक्ति के जीवन का कुछ न कुछ लक्ष्य अवश्य होता है। वह अपने भविष्य के बारे में तरह-तरह के सपने संजोता है तथा उस लक्ष्य को पाने के लिए कोशिश भी करता है; जैसे-कुछ युवक डॉक्टर, इंजीनियर, वैज्ञानिक आदि बनना चाहते हैं। मैंने भी अपने जीवनकाल के बारे में एक स्वप्न देखा है। मैं बड़ा होकर एक चिकित्सक बनना चाहता हूँ परंतु मेरे माता-पिता मुझे इंजीनियर बनाना चाहते हैं लेकिन मैंने प्रण लिया है कि मैं बड़ा होकर एक चिकित्सक ही बनूंगा।

सब लोग समझते हैं कि चिकित्सक के व्यवसाय में खूब आय होती है तथा आज के समय में लोग धनी व्यक्ति को ही सम्मान देते हैं, लेकिन मैंने चिकित्सक बनने का लक्ष्य धन की कमाई को ध्यान में रखकर निर्धारित नहीं किया है। मैंने यह लक्ष्य इसलिए निर्धारित किया है क्योंकि में आज देखता हूँ कि अधिकांश गरीब लोगों को चिकित्सा की सुविधाएँ उपलब्ध नहीं हो पाती जिसके कारण उन्हें अत्यधिक कठिनाइयों का सामना करना पड़ता है तथा कभी-कभी तो उनके परिवार के सदस्य की बिना उपचार के असमय ही मृत्यु हो जाती है या जीवन भर रोगों से घिरे रहते हैं। मैं एक चिकित्सक बनकर इन गरीब दीन-दुखियों की सेवा में भी कुछ समय लगाना चाहता हूँ। इसका अर्थ यह नहीं कि मैं अपने परिवार के लिए कुछ नहीं कमाऊँगा। धनी व्यक्तियों से पूरी फीस लँगा, पर अपनी कमाई का कुछ भाग गरीबों के लिए खर्च करूंगा। मैं कमाई के साथ-साथ समाज सेवा करके मनुष्य के कर्तव्य को पूरा करने का प्रयास करूंगा। इससे मैं समाज सेवकों एवं उनकी संस्थाओं से संपर्क करूंगा।

मैंने पढ़ा था-
यही पशु प्रवृत्ति है कि आप-आप ही चरे वही मनुष्य है कि जो मनुष्य के लिए मरे।
मैंने इसी कथन को अपने जीवन का लक्ष्य बना लिया है तथा इसे पढ़ाई में चुने जाने के लिए अभी से प्रयासरत रहूँगा।

4. पर्यावरण प्रदूषण
पर्यावरण दो शब्दों के मेल से बनता है। परि + आवरण, यानी वह आवरण जो हमें चारों तरफ से घेरे हुए है। नदी, पहाड़, वायु, आकाश, धरती आदि पदार्थ जो हमारे चारों ओर उपस्थित हैं, उसी का नाम पर्यावरण है। ‘प्रदूषण’ शब्द का अर्थ है-हमारे आसपास का वातावरण गंदा होना। आज प्रदूषण की समस्या लगातार बढ़ती जा रही है। प्रदूषण चार प्रकार के होते हैं-ध्वनि प्रदूषण, वायु प्रदूषण, जल प्रदूषण और भूमि प्रदूषण।।

भूमि पर जनसंख्या के बढ़ते दबाव तथा उद्योग धंधों के लिए भूमि की कमी को पूरा करने के लिए वनों की अंधाधुंध कटाई की जा रही है। इसी प्रकार कल-कारखानों की चिमनियों से निकलते धुएँ ने वायु को प्रदूषित कर दिया है। औद्योगिक इकाइयों से निकलने वाला अवशिष्ट पदार्थ जब नदी आदि के पानी में बहा दिया जाता है, तो इस कारण से नदी का पानी प्रदूषित होता है और नगरों में मशीनों, वाहनों आदि के शोर से ध्वनि प्रदूषण होता है।

प्रदूषण के कारण अनेक प्रकार के रोगों का जन्म होता है। वायु प्रदूषण के कारण साँस और आँखों के रोग, खाँसी, दमा आदि होते हैं। प्रदूषित जल के सेवन करने से पेट के रोग हो सकते हैं। ध्वनि प्रदूषण से मानसिक तनाव बढ़ता है। यही नहीं प्रदूषण से उच्च रक्त चाप, हृदय रोग, एलर्जी, चर्म रोग भी हो जाते हैं।

प्रदूषण की रोकथाम के लिए यह आवश्यक है कि वनों की कटाई बंद हो, कारखाने शहरों से दूर स्थापित किए जाएँ। ज़्यादा से ज़्यादा पेड़ लगाने होंगे तथा अपने आसपास साफ़-सफ़ाई का ध्यान रखना होगा।

5. समय का सदुपयोग
समय अमूल्य धन है। व्यक्ति के निर्माण में समय का महत्त्व असंदिग्ध है। बीता हुआ समय कभी नहीं लौटता। अतः जो व्यक्ति समय की उपेक्षा करता है समय उसका साथ छोड़कर आगे बढ़ जाता है। इसलिए यह जरूरी है कि समय के प्रत्येक क्षण का सदुपयोग किया जाय।

सुख और दुख भी समय की देन हैं। समय केवल उसका मित्र है जिसका जीवन का एक-एक पल बहुमूल्य है। उन्नति करने वाला व्यक्ति बेकार की बातों में अपना सयम नष्ट नहीं करता। समय का दुरुपयोग मनुष्य के लिए घातक, उन्नति में बाधक तथा पश्चाताप का कारण बनता है।

प्रत्येक कार्य को करने की एक निश्चित एवं सुदृढ़ योजना बना लेनी चाहिए, फिर उसके अनुरूप कार्य संपन्न करना चाहिए। सूर्य और चंद्रमा निर्धारित समय पर उदय-अस्त होते हैं, पूरी प्रकृति समय के अनुशासन में बँधी हुई है। संसार में जितने भी महापुरु ष हुए हैं, उन्होंने अपने जीवन के एक-एक पल का उपयोग किया है। बड़े-बड़े वैज्ञानिक, संगीतकार, साहित्यकार समय का सम्मान करके ही बड़े बने हैं। समय का सम्मान करना ही सच्ची पूजा है। जो व्यक्ति अपने जीवन के प्रत्येक क्षण का सदुपयोग करता है, वही जीवन में सदैव प्रसन्न, संतुष्ट और संपन्न रहता है। अतः समय का यह महत्त्व समझकर जो व्यक्ति अपने जीवन में आचरण करते हैं, वही समाज की अगुवाई करते हैं। पूज्य एवं पथ प्रदर्शक बनते हैं।

6. प्रकाश पर्व दीपावली
त्योहारों के देश भारत में समय-समय पर अनेक त्योहार मनाए जाते हैं, जो व्यक्ति को अपनी संस्कृति से जोड़े रखते हैं तथा जीवन में उल्लास एवं उत्साह भर देते हैं। दीपावली भी भारतीयों द्वारा मनाया जाने वाला एक महत्त्वपूर्ण त्योहार है। दीपावली दो शब्दों से मिलकर बना है-दीप + अवली अर्थात दीपों की पंक्ति। इस दिन दीप जलाने का विशेष महत्त्व है इसलिए इस दिन रात को दीपक जलाकर प्रकाश किया जाता है। अतः दीपावली प्रकाश पर्व है।

दीपावली का त्योहार कार्तिक मास की अमावस्या को मनाया जाता है। दीपावली मनाने के विषय में अनेक मत हैं। कुछ लोगों का विचार है कि जब श्री रामचंद्र जी लंका पर विजय प्राप्त कर अयोध्या लौटे तब उनके स्वागत की खुशी में लोगों ने घी के दीए जलाए थे, तभी से यह त्योहार मनाया जाता है। आर्यसमाज के संस्थापक स्वामी दयानंद और जैन धर्म के प्रवर्तक महावीर स्वामी को दीपावली के दिन ही मोक्ष प्राप्त हुआ था। सिक्खों के छठे गुरु हरगोविंद सिंह इसी दिन मुगलों के कारागार से मुक्त हुए थे। दीपावली सफ़ाई और स्वच्छता का संदेश लेकर आती है। कुछ दिन पहले से ही लोग अपने घरों की सफ़ाई करने में जुट जाते हैं। उस दिन बाजार में दुकानें मिठाइयों, पटाखों और सजावट के सामान से विशेष रूप से सजी रहती है।

दीपावली के साथ पाँच त्योहार जुड़े हैं–धनतेरस, नरक चतुर्दशी, गोवर्धन पूजा और भैयादूज।

धनतेरस के दिन सोने-चाँदी के आभूषण खरीदना शुभ माना जाता है। छोटी दीपावली के दिन नरक चतुर्दशी मनाई जाती है। दीपावली । के दिन रात में लोग अपने-अपने घरों पर दीपकों तथा मोमबत्तियों का प्रकाश किया करते हैं। लक्ष्मीपूजन किया जाता है। बच्चे आतिशबाजी करते हैं। लोग अपने मित्रों एवं संबंधियों के घर मिठाई के साथ शुभकामनाओं तथा उपहारों का आदान-प्रदान करते हैं। दीपावली के अगले दिन गोवर्धन पूजा की जाती है और उसके अगले दिन भैया-दूजे का त्योहार मनाया जाता है। हमें इस दिन जुआ। खेलने तथा शराब से दूर रहना चाहिए। दीपावली हमें आनंद एवं प्रकाश देती है, इसलिए हमें यह त्योहार सदैव मिल-जुलकर एवं सद्भावना से मनाना चाहिए।

7. खेलों का महत्त्व
खेल हमारे जीवन का महत्त्वपूर्ण हिस्सा है। चाहे वह बच्चा हो या जवान या बुजुर्ग सभी को खेलना अच्छा लगता है। खेलों से स्वस्थ शरीर एवं मन स्वथ्य रहता है। खेलने से हमारे शरीर में स्फूर्ति और ताजगी आती है। यह एक प्रकार का व्यायाम भी है, जो हमारे शरीर को मजबूत और सुगठित बनाता है।

खेल दो प्रकार के होते हैं-बाहरी और भीतरी। अर्थात घर के बाहर खुले मैदान में खेले जाने वाले खेल तथा घर के अंदर खेले जाने वाले खेल। घर के अंदर खेले जाने वाले खेलों में शतरंज, कैरमबोर्ड, लूडो, साँप-सीढी आदि कई प्रकार के खेल आते हैं। कैरमबोर्ड, शतरंज, लूडो जैसे खेलों से हमारा मानसिक विकास होता है।

घर के बाहर खुले मैदान में खेले जाने वाले खेलों से हमारा मानसिक विकास होता है; जैसे फुटबॉल, क्रिकेट, टेनिस, कबड्डी, हॉकी, बास्केटबॉल, गोल्फ आदि। ये खेल अंतर्राष्ट्रीय स्तर पर खेले जा रहे हैं।

खेलने वाला व्यक्ति कुछ देर के लिए संसार के सारे झंझटों को भूल जाता है, वह निश्चित हो जाता है। इससे काम करने की शक्ति बढ़ती है तथा हमें समूह में काम करने की आदत पड़ती है। खेलों से हमारे अंदर आत्मविश्वास, सहयोग, अनुशासन, साहस, एकता आदि मानवीय गुणों का भी विकास होता है। हमें नए-नए लोगों से मिलने और समझने का अवसर मिलता है।

आज खेल-जगत में प्रसिद्धि के साथ-साथ धन भी खूब कमाया जा रहा है। इसलिए शारीरिक और मानसिक विकास के लिए हमारे जीवन में खेलों का बहुत अधिक महत्त्व है।

8. ऋतुओं का राजा वसंत
भारत में छह ऋतुओं में वसंत को ऋतुराज कहकर संबोधित किया जाता है, क्योंकि यही ऋतु सबसे अधिक सौंदर्यमयी तथा मादक होती है। इस ऋतु में पृथ्वी का कण-कण रोमांचित हो जाता है। वसंत ऋतु भी दो महीने के लिए आती है। चैत और बैशाख वसंत ऋतु के मास है। इस समय प्रकृति मानो रंग-बिरंगे फूलों की चादर ओढ़े हुए इठलाती दिखाई देती है, इस समय न तो अधिक गरमी होती है और न सरदी। पक्षियों की चहचहाहट, भंवरों की गुन-गुन आदि मधुर संगीत के समान सुनाई पढ़ते हैं। शीतल-मंद-सुगंधित पवन बहने लगती है, सरसों के फूलों को देखकर ऐसा प्रतीत होता है मानो धरती ने पीली चुनरिया ओढ़ ली हो। आम वृक्षों पर बौर छा जाता है तथा कोयल का मधुर संगीत सुनाई पड़ता है।

वसंत ऋतु उल्लास, उमंग, माधुर्य, मादकता, उत्साह तथा सौंदर्य की ऋतु है। स्वास्थ्य की दृष्टि से भी यह ऋतु अत्यंत उपयोगी है। भारतीय परंपरा के अनुरूप इसी काल में नए संवत वर्ष का चक्र भी प्रारंभ होता है। यह ऋतु कवियों को बहुत प्रिय है।।

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