Why Do we Fall ill – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Science

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Facts that Matter

• Introduction
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
• Basic conditions for good health:
(1) Proper balanced and nutritious diet.
(2) Personal hygiene.
(3) Clean environment and surroundings.
(4) Healthy air, no pollution in the surrounding.
(5) Regular exercise.
(6) Proper rest.
(7) Good standard of living and economic status.
• Disease: when the body is not at ease i.e., comfortable then it is said to have a disease.
When there is a disease, the functioning or appearance of one or more systems of the body changes.
Depending on the duration—disease is classified as acute or chronic.
• Acute disease: Diseases that last for only short period of time, e.g., headache, common cold etc.
• Chronic disease: Diseases that last for long time,’ are called chronic diseases, e.g., elephantiasis, tuberculosis, etc.
• Causes of diseases: Immediate cause and contributory cause.
• Immediate cause: The organisms that enter our body and causes disease is called immediate cause. For example, virus, bacteria, protozoa etc.
• Contributory cause: The secondary factors which led these organisms enter our body are called as contributory cause. For example, dirty water, unclear
surroundings, contaminated food, improper nourishment, poverty, poor standard of living etc.
• Diseases may be due to infectious and non-infectious causes.
(a) Infectious causes: Diseases where microbes are the immediate causes are called infections diseases. The infection spreads from one person to another.
(b) Non-infectious causes: Some diseases that do not spread in the community, but remains internal are called non-infectious diseases. Example, cancer, genetic abnormalities, high blood pressure etc.
• Infectious diseases (Communicable diseases): When a disease causing organism enters our body it causes infection, it multiplies and grows in the body called host and micro-organisms multiplies in the host body.

• Infectious diseases spreads through:
(a) Air: Causes air-borne diseases due to bacteria, virus e.g., common cold, influenza, measles, tuberculosis.
(b) Food and water: Is caused due to contaminated food and water that contains bacteria, virus, worm etc. Example, cholera, typhoid and hepatitis.
(c) Contact: Many diseases spread by contact of infected person with the healthy person. Examples, fungal infection, scabies etc.
AIDS and syphilis spread due to sexual contact.
(d) Body fluids: Body fluids like blood, semen, mother milk when infected can also cause disease. Example, AIDS.
• Antibiotics: These are the chemicals (medicine, drugs) that block biochemical pathways important for bacteria. They are used for diseases caused by bacteria.
• Inflammation: When an active immune system release many cells to the affected tissue to heat-off the disease-causing microbes it is called inflammation. Local effects caused on body due to inflammation are—swelling, pain, fever and redness.
• Principles of treatment
(1) To reduce the effects of the diseases.
(2) To kill the cause of the disease i.e., to kill the microbes like bacteria fungi, protozoa.
• Principles of Prevention
(1) General method
(2) Specific method
• General ways of preventing infections relate to preventing exposure.
• Prevention of exposure can be done tin following ways:
(1) For air borne infections—valid -visiting public place, cover your nose and mouth while coughing.
(2) for water borne infections- Drink, clean and boiled thinking water.
(3) For vector borne infections Keep the surroundings clean, do not keep any puddle of water open in the surrounding as it allows the breeding of mosquitoes.
(4) Self immune system that can (fight off and kill microbes when it enters our body.
(5) Availability of proper and sufficient -food for everyone.
• Specific ways: 1% (giving vaccines, childhood immunisation that its given to the children for (preventing infectious diseases.

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Work, Power And Energy – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Science

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Facts that Matter

Work: When a force acts on an object and the object shows displacement, the force has done work on the object.
Two conditions need to be satisfied for work to be done:
(i) A force should act on object
(a) The object must be displaced
Work = Force x Displacement Unit of workdone = Joule = Newton x metre 1 Joule work is said to be done when 1 Newton force is applied on an object and it shows the displacement by 1 meter.

• Energy
The capacity of a body to do work is called the energy of the body.
Unit of energy = Joules 1KJ = 1000 J
• Forms of Energy: The various forms of energy are potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy and light energy.
• Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.
Kinetic energy of body moving with a certain velocity = work done on it to make it acquire that velocity
• Derivation
Let an object of mass m, move with uniform velocity u, let us displace it by s, due to constant force F, acting on it

• Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or shape is called its potential energy.
•shape


• Gravitational Potential Energy: (GP)
When an object is raised through a height, work is said to be done on it against gravity.
The energy possessed by such an object is called the gravitational potential energy. GPE = work done in raising a body from the ground to a point against gravity.
• Derivation

Consider a body with mass m, raised through a height h, from the ground, Force required to raise the object = weight of object mg.
Object gains energy to the work done on it.

Work done in both the cases (i) and (ii) is same as a body is raised from position A to B, even if the path taken is different but the height attained is the same.
• Mechanical Energy: The gum of kinetic energy and potential energy is called mechanical energy.
• Law of Conservation of Energy:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another. The total energy before and after transformation remains the same.

Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Constant (Mechanical energy)
A body of mass ‘m’ is raised to height ‘h’ at A its potential energy is maximum and kinetic energy is 0 as it is stationary.
When body falls at B, h is decreasing hence potential energy decreases and V is increasing hence kinetic energy is increasing.
When the body is about to reach the ground level, h = 0, v will be maximum hence kinetic energy –> potential energy
Decrease in potential energy = Increase in kinetic energy
This shows the continual transformation of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
• Power

• Commercial Unit of Energy

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Sound – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Science

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Facts that Matter

• Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
• Propagation of Sound: Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
• Medium: The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Air is the most common medium for sound propagation.
• Wave: A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the particles of the medium set neighbouring particles into motion. They in turn produce similar motion in others. The particles of the medium do not move forward themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward. This is what happens during propagation of sound in a medium, hence sound can be visualised as a wave. Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the medium and are called mechanical waves.
When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called a compression (C), as shown in following figure. This compression starts to move away from the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R).

• As the object moves back and forth rapidly, a series of compressions and rarefactions is created in the air. These make the sound wave that propagates through the medium. Compression is the region of high pressure and rarefaction is the region of low pressure.
• Experiment to show Sound needs a medium:
Activity:
– Take and electric bell and airtight jar.
– Fit the bell inside the jar and attach to battery.
– With air still in jar ring the bell.
– Now take out air by vaccumization.
– Ring the bell again.

Observation: Sound of bell can be heard when air is inside the jar. When air is taken out then sound cannot be heard.
Conclusion: This shows that presence of medium is necessary for propagation of sound waves.
• Properties of Sound Waves:

• Frequency: Number of‘oscillations of sound waves is called its frequency. Number of peak and troughs per unit of time will give frequency. It is represented by v (nu) and its SI unit is Hertz (Hz).
• Time Period: The time taken to complete one oscillation is called its time period. Its unit is second and is represented by T.
• Relation of frequency and time period:
v=1/T
• Amplitude: The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the mean value is called the amplitude of the wave. It is usually represented by the letter A. Its unit is meter.
• Softness or Loudness of Sound: If the amplitude is smaller then the sound will be softer and if it is larger then sound will be louder. Higher amplitude helps the sound wave in traveling faster.
• Speed of sound: It is the distance which a compression or a rarefaction travels per unit of time.

So, Speed = Wavelength Frequency
The speed of the sound remains almost the same for all frequencies in a given medium under the same physical condition.
Speed of Sound in Different Media at 25° C.

• Reflection of Sound: Sound reflects off a surface in the same way as light reflects and follows same rules of reflection. The incident sound and the reflected sound make equal angles with the normal and all three are in the same plane.
• Echo: In bigger monuments and in large empty halls you can hear reflections of your sound after you speak something. This effect is known as echo. The sensation of sound persists in our brain for 0.1 seconds, so to hear echo the time difference between original sound and reflected sound should be more than that.
As you know speed of sound in air is = 344 m/s And 344 x 0.1 = 34.4 metre
So, the minimum distance required to hear an echo from a reflecting wall or surface should be half of 34.4, means it should be 17.2 metres.
• Reverberation: Repeated reflections of sound results in persistence of sound and is called reverberation.
• Use of Reverberation of Sound: Following instruments use this property of sound:
1. Megaphones, Shehanais, Trumpets
2. Stethoscope
3. Curved dome of concert halls
• Range of Hearing in humans:
From 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
Sounds below 20 Hz are called infrasonic.
Sounds above 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic.

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Natural Resources – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Science

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Facts that Matter

• Life exists on earth due to its ambient temperature, water, food and energy from the sun.
• Lithosphere: The outer crust of the earth is called the lithosphere.
• Hydrosphere: Sum of all water bodies is called hydrosphere.
• Atmosphere: Air that covers the earth is called atmosphere.
• Biosphere: The life-supporting zone of the earth where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere interact and make life possible is called biosphere.
It consists of biotic components-living things and abiotic components-non- living things like air, water and soil
• Air: It is a mixture of many gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, water vapour and other gases.
• Nitrogen is used by plants for protein synthesis.
• Oxygen sustains life used for respiration, combustion.
• Carbon-dioxide used by plants for preparing food by photosynthesis.
• Water vapour: provides moisture.
• Atmosphere: Acts as a protective blanket around the earth. Maintains the temperature on the surface of earth. Winds are caused due to uneven heating of atmosphere, these winds maintains the pressure difference and causes cold and hot air, sea and land breeze, brings rain etc.
• Rain: The clouds formed due to the evaporation of water condenses and precipitates as rain.
• Water: Various sources of water are available i.e., surface water, underground water, snow, ice-bergs, water vapour in atmosphere.
Use of Water
— Water is used for transportation.
— Sustain life
— Used by plants and animals for life-processes. Water available for drinking should be conserved and used wisely.
• Soil: Soil is formed by a very slow process i.e., by weathering of rocks. It consists of various nutrients. Plants grow in the soil, many microbe’s home is soil.
Varieties of soil types are available
1. Sandy soil     2. Loamy soil
3. Clayey soil    4. Black soil
5. Red soil        6. Alluvial soil
7. Laterite soil.
• Temperature: Temperature and light is also required for all biotic components.
• Pollution: Contamination of natural sources with unwanted substances.
— Air Pollution: Air contaminated with smoke, fumes, dust, pollen grain,
etc.
— Water Pollution: Water contaminated by sewage, industrial waste, excreta, chemicals, fertilizers etc.
— Soil Pollution: Soil gets contaminated with fertilizers, pesticides, garbage, chemicals etc.
• Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: A constant interaction between biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere makes a system and these flow of components form a cycle called bio-geo-chemical cycle.
• Water Cycle: Water from various sources evaporates, condenses and again precipitates as rain, falls on the land, flows back in the sea and river is known as water cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen from the atmosphere is fixed by the process of nitrification. Nitrification is done by nitrogen fixing bacteria e.g. Rhizobium present in soil, these compounds of nitrogen are absorbed by plants. The fixation is also done by atmosphere or industries. In atmosphere, during lightning, high temperatures and pressures created in air converts nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen, which dissolves in water forming nitric and nitrous acids and is then used by life forms.
Plants contain nitrogen in the form of proteins or other complex compounds. Plants are eaten by animals. When die bacteria present in soil act on and convert plants and animals various compounds of nitrogen into nitrites and nitrifies. Another group of bacteria convert these nitrates and nitrites into free, elemental nitrogen, this process is called denitrification.
• Carbon Cycle: Carbon is present in the compound form in atmosphere ie., CO₂, carbonates in water which forms limestone.
CO₂ is taken by plants during photosynthesis to form organic compounds like glucose, carbohydrates, these plants are further eaten by animals; and decomposition gives CO₂ back to atmosphere. Plants and animals which get buried under the earth and does not decompose form coal and petroleum respectively.
Animals and plants also release CO₂ back to atmosphere during respiration.

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यमराज की दिशा – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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मेघ आए – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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चंद्र गहना से लौटती बेर – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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एक कुत्ता और एक मैना – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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मेरे बचपन के दिन – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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प्रेमचंद के फटे जूते – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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नाना साहब की पुत्री देवी मैना को भस्म कर दिया गया – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Hindi Kshitiz

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Indian Economy on the Eve of Independence – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

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Economy of a country includes all production, distribution or economic activities that relates with people an determines the standard of living. On the eve of independence Indian economy was in a very bad shape due to the presence of British colonial rule.
The Britishers generally framed policies’that favoured England. The only purpose of Britishers was to unjustly enrich themselves at the cost of India’s economic development. Thus, in 1947, when British transferred power back to India, we inherited a crippled economy.
♦ India’s National and Per Capital Income Under Colonial Rule There were no efforts from the part of the colonial government to measure the national and per capital income of India. Some individual attempts were made to measure such incomes but produced conflicting and inconsistent results. The contribution of VKRV Rao and Dadabhai Naoroji are considered very significant in this context.
Low Economic Growth Under Colonial Rule
India had an independent economy before the arrival of British rule. But the Britishers, dominated it for over a period of 200 years. Britishers framed policies that protected and promoted the economic interests of their own country. They transformed India into supplier of raw materials and consumer of finished goods from the factories of Britain. Such policies affected Indian economy very adversely.
In this context, we will discuss the conditions of certain sectors that were badly affected by the presence of colonial rule, i.e. on the eve of independence.
State of Agriculture Sector
Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for most of the people of India, and about 85% of the country’s population lived mostly in villages and derived livelihood directly or indirectly from agriculture.
Inspite of such a large segment of the population being dependent of agriculture, either directly or indirectly, this sector was facing stagnation and constant deterioration, as is brought forward through the following points.
1. Low Level of Productivity
Productivity, i.e. output per hectare of land was very low. This led to a low level of output, inspite of a large area under cultivation.
2. High’Degree of Vulnerability
Agriculture was vulnerable to climatic factors and mostly affected by erratic rainfall. Poor rainfall generally led to a low level of output and also to crop failures. No effort was made by British Government to provide permanent source of irrigation facilities for the farmers.
The reasons for stagnation of agricultural sector were
(i) Land Revenue System
The Britishers introduced the zamindari system. The zamindars were recognised as permanent owners of the soil. Zamindars were to pay a fixed sum to the government as land revenue and they were absolutely free to extract as much from the tillers of the soil as they could.
Their main interest was in rent collection regardless of the economic conditions of cultivators and this caused misery and social tension among the latter.
Apart from this there are two more systems namely, the Ryotwari and the Mahalwari were prevalent.
(ii) Lacking of Resources
Because the tillers had to pay huge amount of rent, referred to as ‘Lagaan’, they were not left with any surplus to be able to provide for resources needed in agriculture in the form of fertilisers or providing for irrigation facilities. This further lowered the agricultural productivity.
(iii) Commercialisation of Agriculture
Commercialisation of agriculture refers to shift from cultivation for self-consumption to cultivation for sale in the market. It also refers to cultivation of cash-crops like cotton, indigo, etc.
Due to commercialisation of agriculture, there was some evidences of a relatively higher yield of cash crops in certain areas of the country. But this could not help in improving the conditions of Indian farmers.
Instead of producing food crops, farmers were producing cash crops, which were ultimately to be used by British industries.
State of Industrial Sector
In the pre-british period, India was particularly well-known for its handicraft industries, in the fields of cotton and silk textiles, metal and precious stone works, etc. These products enjoyed a worldwide market based on the reputation of the fine quality of material used and the high standards of craftsmanship.
But the Britishers followed a policy of systematic de-industrialisation by creating circumstances conducive to the decay of handicraft industry and not taking any steps to promote modern industry and reduced India to a mere exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods.
The following points bring farword the state of the industrial sector at the eve of independence
1. Decay of Handicraft Industry
The traditional handicraft industry in India enjoyed worldwide reputation, but the British misrule in India led to the decline of Indian handicraft industry. The Britishers adopted the following policies to systematically destroy the handicraft industry.
(i) Discriminatory Tariff Policy of the State
The Britishers followed a discriminatory tariff policy by allowing tariff free exports of raw material from India (to provide for the requirements of their industries in Britain) and tariff free import of British Industrial products (to promote British goods in India), but placed a heavy duty on the export of handicraft products. So, Indian handicraft products started loosing their domestic as well as foreign markets.
(ii) Competition from Machine-made Products
Machine-made products from Britain were cheap and better in quality than the handicraft products. This competition forced many a handicrafts to shut down their business.
(iii) Introduction of Railways in India
The Britishers introduced Railways in India, to expand the market of its low priced industrial products. Consequently, the demand of high-priced handicraft products started to fall, thus leading to the downfall of handicraft industry.
2. Slow Growth of Modem Industry
Under second half of 19th. century, modern industry showed slow growth. This development was confined to the setting up of cotton and jute textile mills.
Subsequently, the iron and steel industries began coming up in the beginning of the 20th century.
In this context, the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was incorporated in August, 1907 in India. It established its first plant in Jamshedpur [Bihar, at present Jharkhand].
But, these industries were the result of private endeavour. The state participation in the process of modem industrialisation was very limited, as is evident from the following points
(i) Limited Growth of Public Sector Enterprises
The public sector enterprises such as railways, power, post and telegraph were confined to areas which would enlarge the size of market for British products in India.
(ii) Lopsided Industrial Structure
The industrial growth was lopsided, in the sense that consumer goods industry was not adequately supported by the capital goods industry.
(iii) Lack of Basic and Heavy Industries
No priority was given for the development of basic and heavy industries. Tata Iron and Steel Mills was the only basic industry in India.
Textile Industry in Bengal
Muslin is a type of cotton textile which had its origin in Bengal,particularly, places in and around Dhaka (now the capital city of Bangladesh). Daccai Muslin had gained worldwide fame as an exquisite type of cotton textile.
The finest variety of muslin was called malmal. Foreign travellers also used to refer to it as malmal shahi or malmal khas meaning that it was worn by or fit for, the royalty.
State of Foreign Trade
India has been an important trading nation since ancient times.
But when the restrictive policies of commodity production, trade and tariff were imposed by the colonial government, it adversely affected the structure, composition and volume of India’s foreign trade.
Following were the reasons behind the poor growth of foreign trade
1. Exporter of Primary Products and Importer of Finished Goods
Under the colonial rule, India became an exporter of primary products such as raw silk, cotton, wool, sugar, indigo, jute, etc and an importer of finished consumer goods like cotton, silk and woollen clothes and capital goods like light machinery produced in the factories of Britain.
2. Britain’s Monopoly Control
Britain maintained a monopoly control over India’s exports and imports. Due to this, more than half of India’s foreign trade was restricted to Britain while the rest was allowed with a few other countries like; China, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Persia (Iran). The opening of Suez Canal in 1869 further intensified British control over India’s foreign trade.
3. Drain of India’s Wealth
An important characteristic of foreign trade throughout the colonial period was the generation of a large export surplus. But this surplus came at a huge cost to the country’s econo Several essential commodities like food grains, kerosene, were scarcely available in the domestic market.
Also, this surplus was not used in any developmental activity of India. Rather, it was used to maintain the administrative set-up of the Britishers or bear the expenses of war taught by Britain.
All of this, led to the drain of Indian wealth.
State of Occupational Structure
During the colonial period, the occupational structure of India exhibited its backwardness. The agricultural sector accounted for the largest share of the work force which remained at a high of 70-75% of the work force and the manufacturing and services sectors accounted for only 10 and 15-20% respectively.
♦ There existed a growing regional disparity with few states such as Orissa, Rajasthan and Punjab witnessing an increase in agricultural workforce while the states which were the parts of Madras presidency. Bombay and Bengal witnessed a decline in the percentage of work force dependent on agriculture.
State of Infrastructure
Infrastructure comprises of such industries which help in the growth of other industries. Under the colonial period, basic infrastructure such as railways, port per transport, posts and telegraphs developed.
However, the real motive behind this development was not to provide basic amenities to the people but to sub serve various colonial interests.
The state of infrastructure under the colonial rule can be understood with the help of following points
1. Roads
Roads constructed before independence were not fit for modern transport. It was very difficult to reach rural areas during rainy season.
The roads were built only to serve the purpose of mobilising the army within India and transporting raw materials from the countryside to the nearest railway station or the port for exporting it.
2. Railways
British rulers introduced railways in India in 1850 and it began its operation in 1853. It is considered as one of the important contribution of Britishers.
The railways affected the structure of the Indian economy in the following two ways
(i) It enabled people to undertake long distance travel and thereby break geographical and cultural barriers.
(ii) It fostered commercialisation of Indian agriculture which adversely affected the self-sufficiency of the village economies in India.
So, the social .benefits provided by the Railways was outweighed by the country’s huge economic loss.
3. Water and Air Transport
The colonial rulers took measures for the development of water transport. The inland waterways, at times, also proved uneconomical as in the case of the coast canal on the Orissa coast. The main purpose behind their development was to serve Britain’s colonial interest.
The colonial government also showed way to the air transport in 1932 by establishing Tata Airlines. Thus, in this way it inaugurated the aviation sector in India.
4. Communication
Modern postal system started in India in 1837. The first telegraphy line was opened in 1857. The introduction of the expensive system of electric telegraph in India served the purpose of maintaining law and order.
Demographic Condition
Various details about the population of British India were first collected through a census in 1881. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition. The second stage began after 1921. However neither the total population of India nor the rate of population growth at this stage was very high. Though suffering from certain limitations, it revealed the Unevenness in India’s population growth. The population grew at a rate of 1.2% up to the year 1951.
On the eve of independence the demographic condition was as follows
(i) The overall literacy level was less than 16%.
(ii) The female literacy level was at a negligible low rate of about 7%.
(iii) Public health facilities were either unavailable to large chunks of population or when available, were highly inadequate. Infant mortality rate was 218 per thousand in contrast to present infant mortality rate of 63 per thousand.
(iv) Life expectancy was very low 44 years in contrast to the present 66 years.
(v) Both birth rate and death rate were very high at 48 and 40 per thousand of persons respectively.

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Indian Economy 1950 – 1990 – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

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On 15 th August, 1947, India attained its freedom. After independence, Nehru and many other leaders decided the type of economic system that will prove beneficial for India. In order to achieve the objectives of ‘growth with equity’, mixed economy was introduced as the economic system of India.
Topic 1 Economic System and Planning
Economic System
Economic system is defined as an arrangement by which the central problems of an economy are solved.
The three basic central problems of an economic system are
(i) Choice of Production What goods and services should be produced in the country?
(ii) Choice of Technology How should the goods and services be produced? Should producers use more human labour or more capital for producing things,
(iii) Distribution of Goods and Services How should goods and services be distributed among people?
On the basis of government intervention, economic system can be classified as
1. Socialist Economy
It is an economic system in which all economic decisions are taken by the government. In this system, the government decides what goods are to be produced in accordance with the needs of society, how goods are to be produced and how they should be distributed.
Socialist economy promotes equitable distribution of income. However, it also suffers from the drawbacks of a bureaucratic set up in the form of red-tapism and corruption.
♦ In Cuba and China, most of the economic activities are governed by the socialistic principles.
2. Capitalist Economy
Capitalist economies depend upon the market forces of demand and supply. In this type of economy, only those consumer goods will be produced that have good demand in the market and yield profit to the producers.
For example, cars will be produced if they are in demand and also if they can earn profits for the producer.
In this economy, the goods and services produced are distributed among people not on the basis of what people need but on the basis of purchasing power.
♦ Capitalist economy generally manifests unequal distribution of income, but it also generates fastest growth in output and national income
♦ Capitalist economy is also called laissez faire or free market economy, it exists in North America, Japan, Australia, Western Europe, etc.
3. Mixed Economy
It is an economic system in which public sector and private sector exist side by side.
In this economy, the market will provide whatever goods and services it can produce well and the government will provide essential goods and services which the market fails to provide.
Merits of Mixed Economy
(i) Mixed economy gives proper scope to private individuals to co-exist and contribute towards economic development.
(ii) In this, planned economic development ensures stability . and balanced development.
(iii) In this, competition between the private sector and public sector industries is there. It leads to enhanced productivity.
Demerits of Mixed Economy
(i) Mixed economy cannot effectively control the private sector industries which are outside the government purview.
(ii) It is characterised by red-tapism and high degree of corruption.
(iii) In it, there is concentration of economic power in the hands of private sector, politicians and bureaucrats.
Economic Planning
Economic planning is a process in which a central authority of a country defines a set of goals to be achieved within a specified period, sets out a plan to achieve those goals, keeping in view the country’s resources.
Planning commission defines economic planning as, ‘Economic planning means utilisation of country’s resources in different development activities in accordance with national priorities’. Now, let us understand what a ‘plan’ is?
• A plan spells out how the resources of nation should be efficiendy utilised.
• It should have some general goals which are achieved through specific objectives within a specified period of time.
To formulate plans, Planning Commission was set up in 1950 under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India.
Its aim was to promote rapid rise in standard of living of the people, increase production and offer employment opportunities in India. To facilitate economic planning Five Year Plans were forniulated. The first Five Year Plan was introduced in April 1951.
All the Five Year Plans are formulated keeping the below objectives in mind
1. Growth
It refers to increase in the country’s capacity to produce the output of goods and services within the country. It implies either a larger stock of productive capital or a large size of supporting services like transport and banking.
Increase is GDP is a good indicator of economic growth. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services produced in the different sectors of an economy, viz the primary sector, the secondary sector and the tertiary sector during an year within the domestic teritory of a country.
2. Modernisation
Adoption of new technology is called modernisation. It is done with an aim to increase the production of goods and services. For example, a farmer can increase the output on the farm by using new seed varieties instead of using old ones.
Modernisation refers to not only change in production methods, but also change in the social outlook of a society by granting equal status to women and making use of their talent in the productive process.
3. Self-Reliance
A nation can promote economic growth and modernisation by using its own resources or by using resources imported from other nations. The first seven Five Year Plans gave importance to self-reliance by avoiding imports. This policy was considered a necessity in order to reduce our dependence on foreign countries especially for food.
4. Equity
It refers to reduction in disparity of income or wealth, by uplifting weaker sections of the society. It also refers to distribution of economic power equally or in such way that every Indian should be able to meet his or her basic needs such as food, a decent house, education, healthcare, etc.
Mahalanobis
The Architect of Indian Planning
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis was born in 1893 in Calcutta. He was educated at the Presidency College in Calcutta and at Cambridge University in England. His contributions to the subject of statistics brought him international fame. In 1946, he was made a Fellow (member) of Britain’s Royal Society, one of the most prestigious organisations of scientists.
Mahalanobis established the Indian Statistical Institute (ISi) in Calcutta and started a journal, Sankhya. Mahalanobis had contributed a lot in the formulation of our Five Year Plans. The Second Plan, became the landmark of his contribution.
During the Second Plan period, Mahalanobis invited many distinguished economists from India and abroad to advise him on India’s economic development. Some of these economists became Nobel Prize winners later, which shows that he could identify individuals with talent.
Many economists today reject the approach to planning formulated by Mahalanobis but he will always be remembered for playing a vital role in putting India on the road to economic progress and statisticians continue to profit from his contribution to statistical theory.

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Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation – An Appraisal – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

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During the tenure of Narasimha Rao Government (1991), India met with an economic crisis relating to its external debt. The government was unable to make repayments on its borrowings from abroad; foreign exchange reserves were not sufficient to repay the debts. The prices of essential goods were rising and the imports were growing at a very high rate.
As a result, the government initiated a new set of policy measures to reform the conditions of an economy and several economic reform programme were also introduced in this respect to promote privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation.

Economic Crisis of 1991 and Indian Economy Reforms

Crisis in India is figured out because of the inefficient management of Indian Economy in 1980s.
The revenues generated by the government were not adequate to meet the growing expenses. So, the government resorted to borrowing to pay for its debts and was caught is a debt-trap.
. Deficit it refers to the excess of government expenditure over its revenue.
Causes of Economic Crisis
Different causes of economic crisis are given as under
(i) The continued spending on development programmes of the government did not generate additional revenue.
(ii) The government was not able to generate sufficient funds from internal sources such as taxation.
(iii) Expenditure on areas like social sector and defence do not provide immediate returns, so there was a need to utilise the rest of its revenue in a highly effective manner, which the government failed to do.
(iv) The income from public sector undertakings was also not very high to meet the growing expenditures.
(v) Foreign exchange borrowed from other countries and international financial institutions was spent on meeting consumption needs and to make repayments on other loans.
(vi) No effort was made to reduce such increased spending and sufficient attention was not given to boost exports to pay for die growing needs.
Due to above stated reasons, in the late 1980s, government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that meeting the expenditure through borrowings became unsustainable.
Need for Economic Reforms
The economic policy followed by the government upto 1990 failed in many aspects and landed the country in an unprecedented economic crisis. The situation was so alarming that India’s reserves of foreign exchange were basely enough to pay for two weeks of imports. New loans were not available and NRIs were withdrawing large amounts. There was an erosion of confidence of international investors in the Indian economy.
The following points highlight the need for economic reforms in the country
(i) Increasing fiscal deficit
(ii) Adverse Balance of Payments
(iii) Gulf crisis
(iv) Rise in prices
(v) Poor performance of Public Sector Units (PSUs).
(vi) High rate of deficit financing.
(vii) Collapse of soviet block.
Emergence of New Economic Policy (NEP)
Finally, India approached International Bank for Reconstitution and Development, popularly known as World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) and received $ 7 million as loan to manage the crisis. International agencies expected India to liberalise and open up economy by removhfg restrictions on private sector and remove trade restrictions between India and other countries.
India agreed to conditions of World Bank and IMF and had announced New Economic Polity (NEP) which consist of wide range of economic reforms.
The measures adopted in the New Economic Policy can be broadly classified into two groups i.e.,
(i) Stablisation Measures They are short-term measures which were intended to correct some weakness that have developed in the Balance of Payments and to bring Inflation under control.
(ii) Structural Reforms They are longterm measures, aimed at improving the efficiency of the economy and increasing its international competiveness by removing the rigidities in various segments of the Indian economy.
The various structural reforms are categorised as
• Liberalisation
• Privatisation
• Globalisation
Balance of Payment It is a system of recording country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world over a period of one year. Inflation It is a situation in which general price level of goods and services increases in an economy over a period of time.

Liberalfeiftoff, Privatisation and Globalisation

By introducing concept of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation, government have revived the condition of Indian Economy.
Liberalisation
Libralisation was introduced with an aim to put an end to those restrictions which became major hindrances in growth and development of various sectors. It is generally defined as the lossening of government regulations in a country to allow for private sector companies to operate business transactions with fewer ristrictions. In relation to developing countries, this term refers to opening of economic border for multinationals and foreign investment.
Objectives of Liberalisation
The main objectives of liberalisation policy are
(i) To increase competition among domestic industries.
(ii) To increase foreign capital formation and technology.
(iii) To decrease the debt burden of the country.
(iv) To encourage export and import of goods and services.
(v) To expand the size of the market.
Economic Reforms Under Liberalisation
Reforms under liberalisation were introduced in many areas. Let us discuss these now
Industrial Sector Reforms
The following steps were taken to deregulate the industrial sector
(i) Abolition of Industrial Licensing Government abolished the licensing requirement of all industries, except for the five industries, which are
• Liquor
• Cigarettes
• Defence equipment
• Industrial explosives
• Dangerous chemicals, chugs and pharmaceuticals.
(ii) Contraction of Public Sector The number of industries reserved for the public sector was reduced from 17 to 8.. Presendy, only three industries are ’ reserved for public sector. They are
• Railways
• Atomic energy
• Defence
(iii) De-reservation of Production Areas
The production areas which were earlier reserved for SSI were de-reserved.
(iv) Expansion of Production Capacity The producer’s were allowed to expand their production capacity according to market demand. The need for licensing was abolished.
(v) Freedom to Import Capital Goods The business and production units were given freedom to import capital goods to upgrade their technology.
2. Financial Sector Reforms
Financial sector includes financial institutions such as commercial banks, investment banks, stock exchange operations and foreign exchange market.
The following reforms were initiated in this sector
(i) Reducing Various Ratio Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) was lowered from 38.5% to 25%.
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) was lowered from 15% to 4.1%.
(ii) Competition from New Private Sector Banks The banking sector was opened for the private sector. This led to an increase in competition and expansion of services for consumers.
(iii) Change in the Role of RBI RBI’s role underwent a change from a ‘regulator’ to a ‘facilitator’.
(iv) De-regulation of Interest Rates Except for savings accounts, banks were able to decide their own interest rates
3. Tax Reforms/Fiscal Reforms
Tax reforms are concerned with the reforms in government’s taxation and public expenditure policies which are collectively known as its fiscal policy.
Moderate and Simplified Tax Structure Prior to 1991, the tax rates in the country were quite high, which led to tax evasion. The fiscal reforms simplified the tax structure and lowered the rates of taxation. This reduced tax-evasion and increased government’s revenues.
4. Foreign Exchange Reforms/External Sector Reforms
External sector reforms include reforms relating to foreign exchange and foreign trade. The following reforms were initiated in this sector
(i) Devaluation of Rupee Devaluation implies a fall in the value of rupee against some foreign currency. In 1991, the rupee was devalued to increase our country’s exports and to discourage imports.
(ii) Other Measures
• Import quotas were abolished.
• Policy of import licensing was almost scrapped.
• Import duty was reduced.
• Export duty was completely withdrawn.
World Trade Organisation (WTO)
The WTO was founded in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT). GATT was established in 1948 with 23 countries as the global trade organisation to administer all multinational trade agreements by providing equal opportunities to all countries in international market for trading purpose. However this had certain problems hence.
WTO was expected to establish a rule based trading regime in which nations cannot place arbitrary restrictions on trade. Its purpose was mainly to expand production and trade in order to have optimum utilisation of world resources.
The WTO agreements cover {rade in goods as well as services to facilitate international trade through removal of tariff as well as non-tariff barriers and provide better market access to all countries. Being an important member of WTO. India has been in front to frame rule and regulations and safeguards interest of developing world.
India has kept commitments towards liberalisation of trade in WTO by removing quantitative restrictions on imports and reducing tariff rates.
Functions of WTO
(i) It facilitates the implementation, administration and operation of the objectives of multilateral trade agreements.
(il) It administers the ‘trade review mechanism’.
(iii) It administers the ‘understanding rules and procedures , governing the settlement disputes’.
(iv) It is a watchdog of international trade, it examines the trade regimes of individual members.
(v) Trade disputes that cannot be solved through bilateral talks are forwarded to the WTO dispute settlement ‘court’.
(vi) It is a management consultant for world trade. Its economist keep a close watch on the activities of the global economy and provide studies on the main issues of the day.
Privatisation
It refers to giving greater role to private sector thereby reducing the role of public sector. In other words, it means shedding of the ownership or management of a government owned enterprise.
It may also mean de-reservation of industries previously reserved for public sector.
Government companies (public companies) are converted into private companies in two ways
(i) By withdrawal of the government from ownership and management of the public sector companies.
(ii) By the method of disinvestment.
Forms of Privatisation
Different forms of privatisation are
(i) Denationalisation When 100% govermffdht ownership of productive assets is transferred to the private sector, it is called denationalisation. It is also known as strategic sale.
(ii) Partial Privatisation When less than 100% or more than 50% ownership is transferred, it is a case of partial privatisation with private sector owning majority of shares. In this situation, the private sector can claim to possess substantial autonomy in its functioning. It is also known as partial sale.
(iii) Deficit Privatikation/Token Privatisation When the government disinvests its shares to the extent of 5 to 10% to meet the deficit in the budget, this is termed as deficit privatisation or token privatisation.
Objectives of Privatisation
The most common and important objectives of privatisation are
(i) Improving the financial condition of the government.
(ii) Raising funds through disinvestment.
(iii) Reducing the workload of public sector.
(iv) Increasing the efficiency of the government undertakings.
(v) Providing better goods and services to consumers.

(vi) Bringing healthy competition within an economy.
(vii) Making way for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
Navratnas and Public Enterprise Policies
In order to improve efficiency, infuse professionalism and enable them to compete more effectively in the liberalised global environment, the government identifies PSUs and declare them as maharatnas, navratnas and mininavratnas. They were given greater managerial and operational autonomy, in taking various decisions to run the company efficiently and thus increase their profits. Greater operational, financial and managerial autonomy has also been granted to profit-making enterprises referred to as mininavratnas.
In 2011, about 90 public enterprises were designated with different status.
A few examples of public enterprises with their status are as follows
(i) Maharatnas
(a) Indian Oil Corporation Limited
(b) Steel Authority of India Limited
(ii) Navratnas
(a) Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
(b) Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
(iii) Mininavratnas
(a) Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
(b) Airport Authority of India
Globalisation
It means integration of the economy of the'”country with the world economy. Globalisation encourages foreign trade and private and institutional foreign investment.
Globalisation is a complex phenomenon and an outcome of the set of various policies that are aimed at transforming the world towards greater interdependence and integration. Globalisation attempts to establish links in such a way that the happenings in India can be in need by events happening miles away. It is turning the into one whole or creating a borderless world.
Outsourcing
An Outcome of Globalisation
This is one of the important outcome of the globalisauon process. In outsourcing, a company hires regular service from external sources, mosdy from other countries, which were previously provided internally or from within the country like legal advice, computer service, advertisement, etc. In other words outsourcing means getting a work done on contract from Someone outside.
As a form of economic activity, outsourcing has intensified, in recent times, because of the growth of fast modes of communication particularly the growth of Information Technology (IT).
Many of the services such as voice-based business processes (popularly known as BPO or call centres), record keeping, accountancy, banking services, music recording, film editing, book transcription, clinical advice or even teaching are being outsourced by companies in developed countries to India.
Most multinational corporations and even small companies, are outsourcing their services to India where they can be availed at a cheaper cost with reasonable degree of skill and accuracy. The low wage rates and availability of skilled manpower in India have made it a destination for global outsourcing in the post reform period.
Economic Growth During Reforms
Growth of an economy is measured by the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The growth of GDP increased from 5.6% during 1980-91 to 8.2% during 2007-2012.
Main highlights of economic growth during reforms are given below
(i) During the reform period, the growth of agriculture has declined. While the industrial sector reported fluctuation, the growth of service sector has gone up. This indicates that the growth is mainly driven by the growth in the service sector.
(ii) The opening up of the economy has led to rapid increase in foreign direct investment and foreign exchange reserves.
The foreign investment, whiclyincludes Foreign
– Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investment(FII), has increased from about US $ 100 million in 1990-91 to US $ 400 billion in 2010-11.
(iii) There has been an increase in the foreign exchange Reserves from about US $ 6 billion in 1990-91 to US $ 300 billion in 2011-12. In 2011, India is the seventh largest foreign exchange reserve holder in the world.
(iv) India is seen as a successful exporter of auto parts, engineering goods, IT software and textiles in the reform period. Rising prices have also been kept under control.
Failures of Economic Reforms
I- Neglect of Agriculture
There has been deterioration in agricultural growth rate. This deterioration is the root cause of the problem of rural distress that reached crisis in some parts of the country. Economic reforms have not been able to benefit the agricultural sector because
(i) Public investment in agriculture sector especially in infrastructure which includes irrigation, power, roads, market linkages and research and extension has been reduced in the reform period.
(ii) The removal of fertiliser subsidy has led to increase in the cost of production which has severely affected the small and marginal formers.
(iii) Various policy changes like reduction in import duties on agricultural products, removal of minimum support price and lifting of quantitative restrictions have increased the threat of* international competition to the Indian formers.
(iv) Export-oriented policy strategies in agriculture has been a shift from production for the domestic market towards production for the export market focusing on cash crops in lieu of production of food grains.
II- Uneven Growth in Industrial Sector
Industrial sector registered uneven growth during this period.
This is because of decreasing demand of industrial products due to various reasons
(i) Cheaper imports have decreased the demand for domestic industrial goods.
(ii) Globalisation created conditions for the free movement of goods and services from foreign countries that adversely affected the local industries and employment opportunities in developing countries.
(iii) There was inadequate investment in infrastructural facilities such as power supply.
(iv) A developing country like India still does not have the access to developed countries markets because of high non-tariff barriers.
Sirdlla Tragedy
Privatisation of power supply in Andhra Pradesh resulted in substantial increase in power-rates, causing many powerlooms to shut down in a small town, Sirdlla.
50 workers committed suicide because of loss in means of livelihood.
II- Other Failures
In addition to the above mentioned failures, the other drawbacks of LPG policy were:
• It led to urban concentration of growth process.
• It encouraged economic colonialism.
• It resulted in the spread of consumerism.
• It led to cultural erosion.

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Human Capital Formation in India – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

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The concept of human capital formation, source of human capital and its growth is revealed in the chapter. It also deals with the relationship among human capital, economic growth and human development.

Concepts and Sources of Human Capital Formation

Just as a country can turn physical resources like land into physical capital like factories, similarly it can also turn human resources like students into engineers and doctors. There by increasing their productivity and efficiency. So, human capital formation aims at converting human resources into human assets.
Human Capital and Physical Capital
1. Human Capital
It refers to the stock of skill, ability, expertise, education and knowledge in a nation at a point of time.
2. Physical Capital
All inputs which are required for further production such as machine, tools and implements, factory buildings, etc are called physical capital.

Human Capital Formation
It is the process of acquiring and increasing the number of people who* have the skills, education and experience which are critical for the economic and political development of a country.
In other words, human capital formation is the process of adding to the stock of human capital over time.
G.M. Meier defines human capital formation as, “human capital formation is the process of acquiring and increasing the number of persons who have the skiff education and experience which are essential for the economic and political development of a country”.
Sources of Human Capital Formation
Investment in education is considered as one of the most important sources of human capital formation. There are several other sources as well. Investment in health, on-the-job training, migration and information are the other sources of human capital formation.
These sources are discussed below
1. Expenditure on Education
The education expenditure is an important source of human capital formation as it is the most effective way on enhancing and enlarging a productive workforce in the country.
Nations and individuals invest in education with the objective
(i) increasing their future income.
(ii) generating technical skills and creating^ manpower, well suited for improving labour productivity and thus, sustaining rapid economic development.
(iii) tending to bring down birth rate which in turn, brings decline in population growth rate. It makes more resources available per person.
(iv) education also results in social benefits since, it also spreads to others.
2. Expenditure on Health
Health is another important source of human capital formation. A sick labourer without access to medical facilities is compelled to abstain from work and there in a loss of productivity. The various forms of health expenditure are preventive medicine, curative medicine, social medicine, provision of clean drinking water, etc.
3. On-the-job Training
Expenditure regarding on-the-job training is a source of human capital formation as the return of such expenditure in the form of enhanced labour productivity is more than the cost of it.
Firms spend huge amounts on giving on-the-job training to their workers. It may be in different forms like a worker may be trained in the firm itself or under the supervision of a skilled worker or can be sent for off campus training.
The firms then insist that workers should work for atleast some time in die company so that they can recover the benefits of the enhanced productivity owing to the training.
4. Migration
People sometimes migrate from one place to the other in search of better jobs that fetch them higher salaries than what they may get in their native places. It includes migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in India. Unemployment is the reason for the rural urban migration in India and technically qualified people migrate from one country to another in order to get high salaries.
5. Expenditure on Information
People spent to acquire information relating to the labour market and other markets like education, health, etc.
For example, people seek information regarding salaries and other facilities available in different labour markets, so that they can choose the right job. Expenditure incurred for acquiring information regarding labour markets and other markets like education and health have also becomes an important source of human capital formation.

Economic Growth and State of Human Capita! Formation in Intiter

Human Capital and Economic Growth
India recognised the importance of human capital in economic growth long ago. The Seventh Five Year Plan says, ‘Human resources development has necessarily to be assigned a key role in any development strategy, particularly in a country with a large population’.
The following points show clearly the interdependence among the two
(i) Higher Productivity of Physical Capital Human capital increases productivity of physical capital as specialised and skilled workers can handle machines or techniques better than the unskilled works. This increased productivity and hence production in leads to economic growth.
(ii) Innovative Skills Human capital facilitates innovation of new methods of production and this increase the rate of economic growth in the form of increase in GDP.
(iii) Higher Rate of Participation and Equality Human capital formation leads to a higher employment rate. With increase in employment, the productivity rises. Also, increase in employment opportunities also increases the level of income and this helps in reducing inequalities of wealth.
Both, increase in employment rate and decrease in income inequalities are pointers of economic development.
(iv) Brings Positive Outlook The process of human capital formation bring in a positive outlook to the society which is different from orthodox and traditional ways of thinking, and hence increases the rate of participation in the workforce causes increase in level of production.
India as a Knowledge Economy
The Indian software industry has been showing an Impressive record over the past decade. Entrepreneurs, bureaucrats and politicians are now advancing views about how India can transform itself into a knowledge-based economy by using Information Technology (IT).
There have been some instances of villagers using e-mail which are cited as examples of such transformation. Likewise, e-governance is being projected as the way of the future.
The value of IT depends greatly on the existing level of economic development.
Human Capital and Human Development
Human development is the broader term than human capital.
Human capital considers education and health as a means to increase labour productivity. Human development is based on the idea that education and health are integral to human well-being because when people have the ability to read and write and the ability to lead a long and healthy life, they will be able to make other choices they value.
In human capital view, any investment in education and health is unproductive, if it-does not enhance output of goods and services. In the human development perspective, human beings are ends in themselves. Therefore, basic education and basic health are important in themselves, irrespective of their contribution to labour productivity. Deutsche Bank and World Bank Report on Indian Economy.
(i) According to two independent reports one from Deutsche and other from World Bank have identified that India would grow faster due to Its strength in human capital formation.
(ii) According to Deutsche Bank (a German Bank)’s report on Global Growth Centres, it has been identified tha India will emerge as one among four major growth Centres in the world by 2020. This report also says that between 2005 to 2020, we expect a 40% rise in the average years of education in India, to just above 7 years.
(iii) World’s Bank report India and the Knowledge Economy-Leveraging Strengths and Opportunities
states that India should make a transition to the knowledge economy and if it uses its knowledge as much as Ireland does, then the per capita income of India will increase from a little over US $1000 in 2002 to US $3000 in 2020.
(iv) It further states that the Indian economy has all the key ingredients for making this transition such as a critical mass of skilled workers, a well functioning democracy and a diversified science and technology infrastructure. Thus two reports point out the fact that further human capital formation in India will move its economy to a higher growth.
Problems of Human Capital Formation in India
The main problems of human capital formation in India are
(i) Rising Population Rapidly rising population adversely affects the quality of human capital in under developed and developing countries like India. It reduces per head availability of existing facilities like sanitation, employment, drainage, water system, housing, hospitals, education, food supply, nutrition, roads, electricity, etc.
(ii) Brain Drain Migration of highly skilled labour termed as ‘brain drain. This slow down the process of human capital formation in the domestic economy.
(iii) Inefficient of Manpower Planning There is inefficient manpower planning in less developed countries where no efforts have been made either to raise the standard of education at different stages pr to maintain the demand and supply of technical labour force. It is a sad reflection on the wastage of human power and human skill.
(iv) Long-term Process The process of human development is a long-term policy because skill formation takes time. The process which produces skilled manpower is thus, slow. This also lowers our competitiveness in the international market of human capital.
(v) High Poverty Levels A large proportion of the population lives below poverty line and do not have access to basic health and educational facilities. A large section of society cannot afford to get higher education or expensive medical treatment for major disease.
Human Developent Index
The Human Developent Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life expectance education, and income indices rank countries into four tiers of human development.
It was created by economist Mahbub Ul Haq, followed by economist Amartya Sen in 1990, and published by the United Nations Development Programme. India has 136th position in the World Human Development Index.

Education Sector in India

Education implies the process of teaching, training and learning especially in schools or colleges, to improve knowledge and develop skills.
Following points explain the important or objective of education
(i) It produces good citizens.
(ii) It develops science and technology.
(iii) It facilities use of natural and human resources of all regions of the country.
(iv) It expands mental horizon of the people.
Growth in Government Expenditure on Education
Government expenditure on education can be expressed in two ways
(i) As a percentage of‘total government expenditure.
(ii) As a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
The percentage of ‘education expenditure of total government expenditure’ indicates the importance of education in the scheme of expenses before the government. Expenditure on education out of our GDP shows how much we are committed towards the development of education in our country.
During 1952-2010, education expenditure as percentage of total government expenditure increased from. 7.92% to 11.1% and as percentage of GDP increased from 0.64% to 3.25%. During this period expenditure on education was not constant. There was irregular rise and fell.
Expenditure on Elementary Education in India
Elementary education takes a major share of total education expenditure and the share of the higher/tertiary education is the least. But expenditure per student on tertiary education is higher than that of elementary.
As we expand school education, we need more teachers who are trained in the higher educational institutions, therefore, expenditure on all levels of education should be increased. The per capita education expenditure is as high as Rs. 2005 in Himachal Pradesh to as low as Rs. 515 in Bihar.
This leads to differences in educational opportunities across states.
Free and Compulsory Education
The Education Commission (1964-66) had recommended that atleast 6% of GDP to be spent on education so as to make a noticeable rate of growth in education.
In December 2002, the Government of India, through the 86th Amendment of the Constitution of India, made free and compulsory education a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. Government of India in year 1998 appointed. The Tapas Majumdar Committee, which estimated an expenditure of around 1.37 lakh crore over 10 years (1998-99 to 2006-07) to bring all Indian children in the age group of 6-14 years, under the purview of school education. Desired level of expenditure an education is 6% of GDP but the current level is little over 4% which is not inadequate. It is necessary to reach the level of 6% which is considered as must for coming years.
Recently, Government of India has started levying a 2% ‘education cess’ on all Union taxes. The revenues from education cess has been earmarked for spending on elementary education.
Educational Achievements in India
Generally, educational achievements in a country are indicated in terms of
(i) Adult literacy level
(ii) Primary education completion rate
(iii) Youth literacy rate These statistics for the years 1990 to 2010 are given in the following table

Future Prospects
India government considers education a key sector where considerable growth and.development is required. Thus, it has set some future prospects for framing its policies.
These prospects are discussed below
Education for All : Still a Distant Dream
Although the education level in India has risen for both adults as well as for youth. Still the number of illiterates in India are as much as the population was at the time of Independence.
In 1950, when the Constitution of India was passed by the constituent assembly, it was noted in the directive principles of the constitution that the government should provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years within 10 years from the commencement of the constitution.
The following factors makes education still a distant dream
(i) Large number of illiterates
(ii) Inadequate vocationalisation
(iii) Gender bias
(iv) Low rural access level
(v) Privatisation
(vi) Low government expenditure on education
Gender Equity : Better than Before
The differences in literacy rates between males and females are narrowing, signifying a positive development in gender equity; still the need to promote education for women in India is imminent for various reasons, such as
(i) Improving economic independence.
(ii) Social status of women.
(iii) Healthcare of women and children.
Therefore, we cannot show the satisfaction about the upward movement in literacy rates as we have miles to go in achieving cent percent adult literacy.
In India, Mizoram, Kerala, Goa and Delhi are the states having high literacy rate, while Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh are the educationally backward states. The educational backwardness is due to social and economic poverty of the people.
Higher Education : A Few Takers
The Indian education pyramid is steep, indicating lesser and lesser number of people reaching the higher education level.
As per NSSG (National Sample Survey Organisation) data, in the year 2007-08, the rate of unemployment for youth with education up to secondary level and above was 18.1% whereas, the rate of unemployment for youth with education up to primary level was only 11.6%.
Therefore, the government should increase allocation for higher education and also improve the standard of higher education institutes, so that students are imparted employable skills in such institutions

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Rural Development – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

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Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in the rural sector. Mahatma Gandhi once said that “real progress of India did not mean only the industrial growth but also the development of villages because two-third of India’s population depends on agriculture”. One-third of rural Indians still live in poverty. This is the reason, why there is need to develop rural India.

Rural Development and Rural credit

Rural development is a comprehensive term which essentially focuses on action for the development of areas that are lagging behind in the overall development of the village economy. It is a process whereby the standard of living of rural people, especially poor people, rises continuously.
The basic objectives of rural development are
(i) Increasing the productivity of the agricultural sector, so that the income of the formers increase.
(ii) Generating alternative means of livelihood in the rural areas, so that dependency on agriculture sector is reduced.
(iii) Promoting education and health facilities in the rural areas, so that human development is also achieved.
Key Areas in Rural Development
Some of the areas which are challenging and need fresh initiatives for development in rural India are as follows
(i) Development of the productive resources of each locality.
(ii) Development of human resources including literacy (more specifically female literacy) education and skill development.
(iii) Development of human resources like health, addressing both sanitation and public health.
(iv) Honest implementation of land reforms.
(v) Infrastructure development like electricity, irrigation, credit, marketing, transport facilities including construction of village roads and feeder roads to nearby highways, facilities for agriculture research and extension and information dissemination.
(vi) Special measures for alleviation of poverty and bringing about significant improvement in the living conditions of the weaker sections of the populations emphasising access to productive employment opportunities.
The share of agriculture sector’s contribution to GDP was on a decline, the population dependent on this sector did not show any significant change. Further, after the initiation of reforms, the growth rate of agriculture sector decelerated to 2.3% per annum during the 1990s, which was lower than the earlier years.
Rural Credit
Credit is the life line of the farming activity. Rural credit means providing credit for the forming community. Farmers need credit because
(i) Most formers in India are small and marginal land holders who practice subsistence farming. They have no surplus for further production.
(ii) The gestation period between sowing and harvesting is quite high. So, farmers have to borrow to fulfill their various needs during this period.
Borrowings of afarmer can befor thefollowingpurpose
(i) Productive Borrowings These borrowings include loans to buy seeds, fertilisers and agricultural equipments and imptements.
(ii) Un-productive Borrowings These borrowings include loans for social purposes such as marriage and festive occassions.
Types of Rural Credit
Credit needs of farmers may be classified as
1. Long-term Credit
These loans are required to acquire permanent assets like tractors, land, costly equipments, tube-wells, etc. These loans are for a period of 5 to 20 years.
2. Medium-term Credit
These loans are required for purchasing machinery, constructing fences and digging wells. Such loans are generally stretch over a period of 12 months to 5 years.
3. Short-term Credit
These loans are required for buying seeds, tools, manure and fertilisers, etc. This credit is given to the needy borrowers by cooperatives, moneylenders and banks. These loans are for a period of 6 to 12 months.
Sources of Rural Credit
Credit in the rural sector is available from two sources
1. Non-institutional Sources of Rural Credit
The major non-institutional sources of rural credit are moneylenders, friends, relatives, landlords, shopkeepers and commission agents. Moneylenders provided about 93.6% of total financial requirement rural areas in 1951-52 and presently it is 30%. The short-term credit needs of the formers are met from commission agents, friends and relatives which supply roughly 50% of total rural borrowings,
Non-institutional sources of credit are not encouraged by government because of the following reasons
(i) They charge high rate of interest.
(ii) They acquire land on failure to pay interest and loan.
(iii) They manipulate accounts.
The Poor Women’s Bank Kudumbashree is women-oriented community based poverty i reduction programme being implemented in Kerala. In 1995, a thrift and credit society was started as a small savings for poor women with an objective to encourage savings. The thrift and credit society mobilised Rs. 1 crore as thrift savings. These societies have been acclaimed as largest informal banks in Asia in terms of participation and savings mobilised.
2. Institutional Sources of Rural Credit
In regard to rural credit, major change occurred after 1969, when India adopted social banking and multi agency approach to adequately meet the needs of rural credit. Different institutions were formed to provide the rural credit.
The major institutional sources of rural credit are as follows
(i) National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) It was set up in 1982 as an apex body to coordinate the activities of all institutions involved in the rural financing system. It has an authorised share capital of Rs. 500 crore. The RBI has contributed half of the share capital while the other half has been contributed by Government of India.
The main functions of NABARD are
(a) To grant long-term loans to the State Government for
subscribing to the share capital of cooperative societies.
(b) To take the responsibility of inspecting cooperative banks, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and primary cooperative societies.
(c) To promote research in agriculture and rural development.
(d) To serve as a refinancing agency for the institutions providing finance to rural and agricultural development.
(e) To help tenant farmers and small farmers to consolidate their land holdings.
♦ The national agricultural credit fundjias been transferred from RBI to NABARD to form a part of its national rural credit fund.
(ii) Self Help Groups (SHGs) Formal credit system has proven inadequate. It has also not been fully integrated into the overall rural, social and community development.
Due to the demand of some kind of collateral, vast proportion of poor rural households were automatically out of the credit networks. Self Help Groups emerged to fill this gap, created by formal credit system.
Self Help Groups (SHGs) promote thrift in small proportions by a minimum contribution from each member. By March end 2003, more than Rs. 7 lakh SHGs had reportedly been credit linked. Such credit provisions are generally referred to as micro-credit programmes. SHGs have helped in the empowerment of women. However, borrowings from SHGs are mainly confined to consumption purposes.
(iii) Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) As a supplement to commercial banks, the regional rural banks have also been opened. These have been set up under the Regional Rural Banks Act-of 1976. Their banking services are meant for small and marginal formers and artisans, etc. They cater exclusively to the needs of weaker section. Nearly 90% of the loan of RRBs were provided to the weaker section.
Kisan Credit Card Scheme
Kisan Credit Card scheme (KCCs) was introduced by the government in 1998-99. It facilitates access to credit from commercial banks and regional rural banks. Under the scheme, the eligible farmers are provided with a kisan card and pass book from the relevent bank. The farmers can make withdrawls and repayments of cash within the credit limit as – specified in the Kisan Credit Card (KCC).
(iv) Commercial Banks They were inducted into the field of agricultural credit under the Banking Reforms Act, 1972. The share of commercial banks in the supply of agricultural credit has considerably improved. It was 46.9% during the year 2006-07.
Commercial banks disburse agricultural credit for the purchase of inputs, cattle, tractors, dairy farming, installation of tube-wells, etc.
(v) Cooperative Credit Societies The cooperative credit societies are actively engaged in addressing credit needs of the farmers, besides offering a host of related services. Notably these societies provide guidance in diverse agricultural operations with a view to raise crop productivity. Currendy, cooperatives account for 16-17% of rural credit flow. The main fimcdon of cooperative credit society is to provide timely and increased flow of credit to the farmers.
Latest Status of Agricultural Credit
The following points reveal the latest status of agricultural credit
(i) The credit flow in this sector in 2011-12 is placed at Rs. 475000 crore.
(ii) The agricultural debt waiver and debt relief scheme was announced in the union budget 2008-09.
(iii) Farmers have been receiving crop loans upto a principal amount of Rs.3 lakh at an effective rate of 4% per annum.
(iv) To provide adequate and timely credit support to the formers, the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme was
introduced in February, 1999. About 10.78 crore KCCs had been issued upto October 2011.
(v) Government is implementing a revival package for short-term rural cooperative credit structure involving financial outlay of Rs. 13596 crore.
Rural Banking : A Critical Appraisal
After the nationalisation of commercial banks in 1969, the rapid expansion of the banking system in rural areas has been witnessed. Rural banking has raised the level of rural farm and non-farm output, income and employment especially after the green revolution.
Advantages of Rural Banking
(i) Raising farm and non-farm output by providing services and credit facilities to farmers.
(ii) Generating credit for self employment schemes in rural areas.
(iii) Achieving food security which is clear from the abundant buffer stocks of grains.
Limitations of Rural Banking
(i) Small and marginal formers receive only a very small portion of the institutional credit.
(ii) Rural banking is suffering from the problems of large amount of over dues and default rate.
(iii) The sources of institutional finance are inadequate to meet the requirements of agricultural credit.
(iv) There exist regional inequalities in the distribution of institutional credit.
It is suggestible that more and more regional rural banks should be set up to need the credit need of the rural and backward areas of India.

Agricultural Marketing, Diversification of Agricultural Activities and Organic Fanning

Agricultural Marketing
Agricultural marketing is the process that involves functions of assembling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation, grading and distribution of agricultural commodities throughout the country.
In other words, agricultural marketing covers the services involved in moving an agricultural product from the farm to the consumer.
Need of Agriculture Marketing
Need of agriculture marketing originates due to the problems faced by farmers.
Different types of problems faced by the farmers are
(i) Farmers while selling their produce to traders suffered from faulty weighing and manipulation of accounts.
(ii) Due to lack of knowledge about the prices prevailing in the markets, farmers are often forced to sell their produce at low prices.
(iii) Farmers did not have proper storage facilities to keep back their produce for selling later at better price.
Approximately 10% of goods produced in farms is wasted due to lack of storage.
Distress Sale Lack of agricultural marketing infrastructure often forces the farmers
to sell their produce at low prices for fear of spoilage or to pay off an imminent debt. This is termed as distress sale. Farmers tend to suffer highly on account of these sales, because they not only get a low price for their produce, but are also cheated by use of false weights and are charged a high commission.
Measures by Government to Improve Agriculture Marketing
Four measures which were initiated to improve the agriculture marketing aspect are discussed below
1. Regulation of Markets
The first measure to improve agriculture marketing aspect is regulation of markets to create orderly and transparent marketing conditions. Regulated markets have been established where sale and purchase of the produce is monitored by the Market Committee consisting of representatives of government, farmers and the traders.
Market committee ensure that the formers get appropriate price of their produce. By and large, this policy benefited farmers as well as consumers. However there is still need to develop about 27000 rural periodic markets as regulated market places to realize the full potential of rural markets.
2. Improvement in Physical Infrastructure
It is the second measure to improve the agriculture marketing aspect. The current infrastructure facilities like; roads, railways, warehouses, godowns, cold storages and processing units etc are inadequate to meet the growing demand. Through this measure government ensures the improvement in physical infrastructure.
3. Cooperative Marketing
It is the third measure taken by government in realising the fair prices for farmers products. As members of these societies, formers find themselves better bargainers in the market and get better prices of their produce through collective sale. The success of milk cooperatives in Gujarat and some other parts of the country are the brilliant examples of cooperative marketing.
Different problems faced by cooperative during the recent past are
(i) Inadequate coverage of former members.
(ii) Lack of appropriate link between marketing and processing cooperatives.
(iii) Inefficient financial management.
4. Supporting Policies
It is the fourth measure taken by government to improve agriculture marketing system. Different supportive policies applied in this regard are
(i) Minimum Support Price (MSP) It is an important step to improve agriculture market system. MSP is an assurance to the farmers that a minimum price will be fixed by the government to formers’ produce, no purchasing can be done below this price, however farmers can sell their produce in open market above MSP. This policy assured a minimum income to the farmers.
(ii) Maintenance of Buffer Stocks of Wheat and Rice Purchases from the farmers are kept by Food Corporation of India as buffer stocks.
(iii) Distribution of Foodgrains and Sugars Through Stocks purchased by government at MSP are used primarily for Public Distribution System (PDS). Distribution of foodgrains and other necessary items like kerosene oil at subsidised price to the poor takes place through fair price shops.
(iv) Emerging Alternative Marketing Channels In India, alternative marketing channels are emerging. Through these channels, farmers directly sell their products to the consumers. This system increases farmers’ share in the prices paid by the consumers.
Important examples of such channels are
(i) Apni mandi (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan).
(ii) Hadaspar mandi (Pune); Rythu Bazars (Vegetables and fruit market in Andhra Pradesh).
(iii) Uzhavar sandies (Farmers’ Markets in Tamil Nadu).
(iv) Several national and international fast food chains and hotels are also entering into contracts with the farmers to supply them farm products (fresh vegetables and fruits) of the desired quality.
Diversification into Productive Activities
Diversification means a major proportion of the increasing labour force in the agricultural sector needs to find alternate employment opportunities in other non-farm sectors. Diversification is an emerging challenge in the context of rural development. It has two aspects
(i) Diversification of crop production
(ii) Diversification of productive activity
Diversification of Crops
This implies a shift from single cropping system to multi-cropping system. In India, where subsistence farming is still dominant, it may also mean a shift from subsistence farming to commercial farming.
Significance of Diversification of Crops
Diversification of crops is improtant because it will
(i) Minimise the risk occuring. due to failure of monsoon.
(ii) Minimise the market risk arising due to price fluctuations.
Need of Diversification into Productive Activities
Agriculture sector is a seasonal based activity, most of agriculture employment activities are concentrated in Kharif season. But during Rabi season, in the areas where irrigation facilities are inadequate, it becomes difficult to find gainful employment.
So, there is a need to focus on allied activities, non farm employment and other emerging alternatives of livelihood. Also agriculture sector is already overcrowded, a major proportion of the increasing labour force needs to find alternate employment opportunities in other non-farm sectors.
Some non-farm activities are discussed below
1. Animal Husbandry
In India, the forming community uses the mixed crop-live stock forming system. Cattle, goats, fowl are the widely domesticated species. Livestock production provides increased stability in income, food security, transport, fuel and nutrition for the family without disrupting other food producing activities.
Today, livestock sector alone provides alternate livelihood options to over 70 million small and marginal farmers including landless labourers.
Poultry accounts for the largest share with 55% followed by others. India has about 304 million cattle, including 105 million buffaloes.
A significant number of women also find employment in the livestock sector.
Milk production in the country has increased by more thlkn five times between 1960-2009. This can be attributed mainly to the successful implementation of ‘operation flood’.
Meat, eggs, wool and other by-products are also emerging as important productive sectors for diversification.
In numbers, our livestock population is quite impressive but its productivity is quite low as compared to other countries. It requires improved technology and promotion of good breeds of animals to enhance productivity. Improved veterinary care and credit facilities to small and marginal formers and landless labourers would enhance sustainable livelihood options through livestock production.
Operation Flood
It is a system whereby all the farmers can pool their milk produced according to different grading (based on quality) and the same Is processed and marketed to urban centres through cooperatives.
In this system farmers are assured of fair price and Income from the supply of the milk to urban markets. Gujarat state is held as a success story in the efficient implementation of milk cooperatives which has been emulated by many states.
2.Fisheries
The socio-economic status of fishermen is comparatively lower because of
(i) rampant underemployment
(ii) low per capital earnings
(iii) absence of mobility of labour to other sectors
(iv) high rate of illiteracy
(v) indebtedness
3. Horticulture
Due to varying climate and soil conditions, India has adopted growing of diverse horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants, spices and plantation crops. These crops play an important role in providing food, nutrition and employment.
The period between 1991-2003 is called ‘golden revolution’ because during this period, the planned investment in horticulture became highly productive and the sector emerged as a sustainable livelihood option.
India has emerged as a world leader in producing a variety of fruits, like mangoes, bananas, coconuts, cashew, nuts and a number of species and is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables.
Economic conditions of many formers engaged in horticulture has improved and has become a means of improving livelihood for many unprivileged classes.
Flower harvesting, nursery maintance, hybrid seed production and tissue culture, propagation of fruits and flowers and food processing are highly profitable employment opportunities for rural women. It has been estimated that this sector provides employment to around 19% of the total labour force.
Other Alternate Livelihood Options
The Information Technology (IT) has revolutionised many sectors in the Indian economy.
It plays a very significant role in achieving sustainable development and food security in the following ways
(i) It can act as a tool for releasing the creative potential and knowledge embedded in our people.
(ii) Issues like weather forecast, crop treatment, fertilisers, pestisides storage conditions, etc can be well administered, if expert opinion is made available to the farmers.
(iii) The quality and quantity of crops can be increased manifold, if the farmers are made aware of the latest equipments, technologies and resources.
(iv) It has ushered in a knowledge economy.
(v) It has potential of employment generation in rural areas.
Every Village A Knowledge Centre
MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, an institution located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, with support from Sir Ratan Tata Trust, Mumbai, has established the Jamshedji Tata National Virtual Academy for Rural Prosperity. The academy envisaged to identify a million grass root knowledge workers who will b% enlisted as fellows of the academy.
The programme provides an info-kiosk (PC with internet and video conferencing facility, scanner, photocopier, etc) at a low cost and trains kiosk owner; the owner then provides different services and tries to earn a reasonable income. The Government of India has decided to join the alliance by providing financial support of Rs. 100 crore.
Sustainable Development and Organic Farming
Conventional agriculture uses chemical fertilisers and toxic pesticides, etc which enter the food supply, penetrate the water resources, harm the livestock, deplete the soil and devastate natural eco-system. Due to these problems, an eco-friendly technology is required.
Organic farming is such technology which restores, maintains and enhances the ecological balance. There is an increasing demand for organically grown food to enhance food safety throughout the world.
Benefits of Organic Farming
(i) Organic forming substitutes costlier agriculture inputs like HYV seeds, chemical fertlisers, pesticides, etc with locally produced organic inputs that are cheaper and thereby generate good returns on investment.
(ii) Organic forming also generates income through exports.
(iii) Organically grown food has more nutritional value than chemical forming, thus providing us with healthy foods. Produce pesticide free and produced in an environmendy sustainable way.
(iv) Due to more labour requirement in organic farming, it is an attractive proposition for India.
Limitations of Organic Farming
(i) Yields from organic forming are less than modern agricultural forming in the initial years. Therefore, small and marginal formers may find it difficult to adapt to large scale production.
(ii) Organic produce have shorter shelf life than sprayed produce.
(iii) Choice in production of off-season crops in quite limited in organic forming.

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Employment-Growth, Informalisation and Related Issues – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

CBSE NotesCBSE Notes Indian Economic DevelopmentNCERT Solutions Indian Economic Development

Some of the basic issues related to unemployment in India are emphasised in this chapter. It also addresses the growth rate of Indian economy and various employment generation, schemes. It also specifies the need of transformation of workers from in formal sector to formal sector.

Employment and Informalisation of Indian workforce 

Work plays an important role in our lives as an individual or a group of members can earn their living after doing work. Being employed gives us a sense of self-worth and enables us to relate ourselves meaningfully with others. In this way, every working person can actively contribute towards national income.
Thus, there is need to know who is a worker and what is an employment.
A person is classed as a worker if
• he has contract or agreement to do work.
• he gets reward or other benefits from doing a work.
• he works for himself or is self-employed.
So, it can be concluded that all those who are engaged in production activities, in whatever capacity high or low, are workers.”
Types of Workers
Broadly, workers can be categorised into self-employed and hired workers. They are discussed below
1. Self-Employed
The workers who own and operate an enterprise to earn their livelihood are known as self-employed.
For example, a farmer working on his own farm. This category accounts for more than 50% of the workforce.
2. Hired Workers
Those people who are hired by others and are paid wages or salaries as a reward for their services are called hired workers.
Hired workers can be of two types
(i) Casual Workers Those people, who are not hired by their employers on a regular/permanent basis and do not get social security benefits are said to be casual workers.
For example, construction workers.
(ii) Regular Salaried Workers When a worker is engaged by someone or by an enterprise and paid his or her wages on a regular basis, they are known as regular salaried employees or regular workers.
For example, teachers, chartered accountants, etc.
Self-Employed and Hired Workers in India
1. According to Region (Rural and Urban)
(i) 41% of workers are self-employed and 59% of workers are hired in urban areas.
(ii) 54% of workers are self-employed and 46% of workers are hired in rural areas.

The above chart shows that the self-employed and casual wage labourers are found more in rural areas than in urban areas. It is -because in urban areas, people are skilled and work for jobs in offices and factories. But in rural areas, people work on their own farms.
2. According to Gender
(i) 50% of male workers are self-employed and 50% of male workers are hired.
(ii) 53% of female workers are self-employed and 47% of female workers are hired.

Distribution of Employment by Gender The above chart shows that self-employment and hired employment are equally important for male workers. But female workers give preference to self-employment than to hired employment. It is because women, both in rural and urban areas are less mobile and thus, prefer to engage themselves in self employment.
So, it can be concluded that self-employment is a very important source of livelihood for people in India. Size of Workforce in India. India has a workforce of nearly 40 crore of people.
The data on the size of workforce In India are as follows
(i) About 70% of the workforce comprises of male workers, only 30% are female workers,
(ii) Nearly, 70% of workforce is found in rural areas i and only 30% is in urban areas.
(iii) Percentage of female workforce In rural areas is nearly 26% while it is only 14% in urban areas.
Employment
It is a relationship between two parties i.e. employer and the employee who are binded in a contract of doing something valuable or it is an act of employing or state of being employed.
The nature of employment in India is multifaceted. Some get employment throughout the year or some others get employed for only a few months in a year. Many workers do not get fair wages for their work but still while estimating the numbers of workers, all those who are engaged in productive activities are included as employed.
Terms associated with workers and employment are accumulated below
(i) Productive Activities Those activities which contribute to the gross national product are called productive activities.
(ii) Workforce Persons who are engaged in productive activities are termed as workers and they constitute the workforce.
Workforce is the total number of persons actually working.
(iii) Workforce Participation Rate (Ratio) It is measured as the ratio between workforce and total population of a country.

(iv) Labour Supply It refers to the amount of labour that the workers are willing to work, corresponding to a particular wage rate.
(v) Labour Force It refers to he number of workers actually working or who are able to work. It is not related to wage rate.
(vi) Rate of Unemployment

Participation of People in Employment
It refers to participation of people induction activity. It is measured as a ratio of or force to total population of the country.
The data on rate of participation of people in employment are as follows
(i) Rate of participation for the urban areas is about 35%.
(ii) Rate of participation for the rural areas is about 41%.
(iii) In urban areas, rate of participation is about 54.3% for men and 13.8% for women.
(iv) In rural areas, rate of participation is about 54.7% for men and 26.1 % for women.
(v) Overall rate of participation in the country is about 39.2%.
Worker-Population Ratio in India, 2009-2010 Worker-Population Ratio

The above data reveals the following
(i) Overall rate of participation in the country is not very high, implying not many people are engaged in production activity.
(ii) Participation rate in rural areas is higher than in urban areas.
(iii) Participation rate for women is higher in rural areas compared with urban areas.
Employment in Firms, Factories and Offices
In the course of economic development of a country, labour flows from agriculture and other related activities to industry and services. In this process, workers migrate from rural to urban areas.
Generally, we divide all productive activities into different industrial divisions, they are as follows
(i) Primary Sector It includes agriculture, forestry and logging, Ashing, mining and quarrying.
(ii) Secondary Sector It includes manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and water supply.
(iii) Tertiary Sector It includes trade, transport, storage and services.

Growth and Changing Structure of Employment
During the period 1960-2000, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India grew positively and was higher than the employment growth. However, there was always fluctuation in the growth of GDP. During this period, employment grew at a stable rate of about 2%.

In 1972-73, about 74% of workforce was engaged in primary sector and in 2009-10, this proportion has declined to 53%. Secondary and service sectors are showing promising future for the Indian workforce.The distribution of workforce in different status indicates that over the last four decades (1972-2010), people have moved from self employment and regular salaried employment to casual wage work. Yet self-employment continues to be the major employment provider.
The movement of labour from regular workers to casual wage workers is known as The Process of casualization.

The chart given above points that in the late 1990s, employment growth started declining and reached the level of growth that India had in the early stages of planning. During these years, there is a widening gap between the growth of GDP and employment. This means that in the Indian economy, without generating employment, we have been able to produce more goods and services. This phenomenon is referred as Jobless Growth.
Distribution of workforce by industrial sectors shows substantial shift from farm work to non-farm work.
Informalisation of Indian Workforce
Development planning in India is always focused to provide decent livelihood to its people. It was thought that the industrialisation strategy would bring surplus workers from agriculture to industry with better standard of living as in developed countries. Over the years, the quality of employment has been deteriorating. A small section of Indian workforce is getting regular income. The government through its labour laws, enable them to protect rights in various ways. This section of workforce forms trade unions, bargains with employers for better wages and other social security measures.
Workforce can be classified into two categories
Formal Sectors
All the public sector establishments and those private sector establishments which employ 10 hired workers or more are called formal sector establishments and those who work in such establishments are formal sector workers.
Informal Sectors
All other enterprises and workers working in those enterprises form the informal sector. Informal sector includes millions of farmers, agricultural labourers, owners of small enterprises and people working in those enterprises as also the self employed who do not have any hired workers.
Those who are working in the formal sector enjoy social security benefits. They earn more than those in the informal sector. Workers and enterprises in the informal sector do not get regular income; they do not have any protection or regulation from the government. Workers are dismissed without any compensation.
As the economy will grow, more and more workers would become formal sector workers. Owing to the efforts of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Indian government has initiated the modernisation of informal sector.
Informalisation in Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad is a prosperous city with its wealth based on the produce of more than 60 textile mills with a labour force of 150000 workers employed in them. These workers had, over the course of the century, acquired a certain degree of income security.
They had secure jobs with a living wage, they were covered by social security schemes protecting their health and old age. They had a strong trade union which not only represented them in disputes but also ran activities for the welfare of workers and their families. In the early 1980s, textile mills all over the country began to close down. In some places, such as Mumbai, the mills closed rapidly.
In Ahmedabad, the process of closure was long drawn out and spread over 10 years. Over this period, approximately over 80000 permanent workers and over 50000 non-permanent workers lost their jobs and were driven to the informal sector.
The city experienced an economic recession and public disturbances, especially communal riots. A whole class of workers was thrown back from the middle class into the infor mal sector, into poverty. There was widespread alcoholism.

Unemployment

In every section of society there will be a large number of unemployed persons. It is a situation, in which all those who, owing to lack of work are not working but either seek work through employment exchanges, intermediaries, friends or relatives or by making applications to prospective employers or express their willingness or availability for work under the prevailing condition of work and remunerations.
There are a variety of ways by which an unemployed person is identified. As per the view 4)f some economists, unemployed person is one who is not able to get employment of even one hour in half a day.
One can get the data of unemployed persons through below stated sources
(i) Reports of Census of India
(ii) NSSO’s (National Sample Survey Organisations) reports of employment and unemployment situation
(iii) Directorate General of Employment and Training Data of Registration with Employment Exchanges.
Types of Unemployment in India

1. Rural Unemployment
Around 70% of India’s population lives in village. Agriculture is the single largest source of their livelihood. Agriculture suffers from a number of problems like dependence upon rainfall, financial constraints, obsolete techniques, etc.
Rural unemployment can be of following three types
(i) Open Unemployment It refers to that situation wherein the worker is willing to work and has the necessary ability to work yet he does not get work and remains unemployed for full time. ”
(ii) Seasonal Unemployment It refers to a situation where a number of a persons are not able to find a job in a particular season. It occurs in case of agriculture, ice-cream factories, woollens factories, etc.
(iii) Disguised Unemployment It exists when marginal physical productivity of labour is zero or sometimes it becomes negative. Important features of disguised unemployment are as under
(a) Marginal physical productivity of labour is zero.
(b) There is disguised unemployment among wage earners.
(c) Disguised unemployment is invisible.
(d) It is different from industrial unemployment.
2. Urban Unemployment
In urban areas, unemployed people are often registered with employment exchanges. Between 1961 and 2008, the number of unemployed registered in employment exchanges has increased more than eight-fold.
Urban unemployment is of three types
(i) Industrial Unemployment It includes those illiterate persons who are willing to work in industries, mining, transport, trade and construction activities, etc.
Problem of unemployment in industrial sector has become acute because of increasing migration of rural people to urban industrial areas in search of employment.
(ii) Educated Unemployment In India the problem of unemployment among the educated people is also quite grave. It is a problem spread across all parts of the country, because the massive expansion of the education facilities have contributed to the growth of educated persons who are on the look out for white collar jobs.
(iii) Technological Unemployment Technological upgradation is taking place in all spheres of activity.
People who have not updated their skills in the latest technology become technologically unemployed.
Causes of Unemployment in India
1. Slow Economic Growth
In Indian economy, the rate of economic growth is very slow. This slow growth rate fails to provide enough employment opportunities to the rising population. Supply of labour is much more than the available employment opportunities.
2. Rapid Growth of Population
Constant increase in population has been a grave problem of India. It is one of the main causes of unemployment. The number of unemployed has actually increased instead of decreasing during the plan period.
3. Faulty Employment Planning
The Five Year Plans in India have not been designed for employment generation. A frontal attack to solve the problem of unemployment is missing. It was thought that economic growth will take care of unemployment problem.
4. Excessive Use of Foreign Technology
Lack of scientific and technical cosearch at home, due to its high cost has resulted in excessive use of foreign technology which has led to technical unemployment in our country.
5 Lack of Financial Resources
The expansion and diversification programme of agriculture and small scale industries have suffered because of lack of financial resources. This has been accompained by increasing government control of economic activities.
6. Increase in Labour Force
The population explosion stage of Indian economy has added young people to the labour force who are seeking employment.
Government and Employment Generation
In 2005, the government had passed an act in parliament known as the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005. It promises 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to all rural households who volunteer to do unskilled manual work. This scheme is one of the important measure adopted by government to generate employment for those who are in need of jobs in rural areas.
Since independence, the Union and State Government have played an important role in generating employment or creating opportunities for employment generation. Their efforts can be broadly categorised into two i.e., direct and indirect.
(i) Direct Employment, In this government employs people in various departments for administrative purposes. It also runs industries, hotels and transport companies and hence provides employment directly to workers.
(ii) Indirect Employment It can be understood as when output of goods and services from government enterprises increases, then private enterprises which receive now materials from government enterprises will also raise their output and hence increase the number of employment opportunities in the economy. This is the indirect generation of employment opportunities by the government initiatives in the economy.
Employment Generation Programmes
Many programmes that governments implement with the aim of alleviating poverty through employment generation are called employment generation programmes.
These programmes aim at providing not only employment but also services in areas such as primary health, primary education, rural drinking water, nutrition, assistance for people to buy income and employment generating assets, development of community assets by generating wage employment, construction of houses and sanitation, assistance for constructing houses, laying of rural roads, development of waste lands/degraded lands.

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Infrastructure – CBSE Notes for Class 11 Indian Economic Development

CBSE NotesCBSE Notes Indian Economic DevelopmentNCERT Solutions Indian Economic Development

Infrastructure facilitates support system in an economy. It contributes to economic development of a country both by rising the productivity of factors of production and by improving the quality of life of its people.
This chapter focuses on analysing the economic and social components of infrastructure. The significance of infrastructure in the context of growth and development of an economy is also discussed in it.

Concept, Types and Importance of Infrastructure

Infrastructure is basic physical and organisational structure needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. It provides supporting services in the main areas of industrial and agricultural production, domestic and foreign trade and commerce. Infrastructural installations do not direcdy produce goods but help in promoting production activities in an economy. e.g. transport, communication, banking, power, etc.
These services include roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, power stations, oil and gas pipelines, telecommunication facilities, etc. They also include country’s educational system including schools and colleges, health system including hospitals, sanitary system including clean drinking water facilities and the monetary system including banks, insurance and other financial institutions.
Types of Infrastructure
Infrastructure is broadly categorised as social and economic infrastructure. They are discussed below
Social Infrastructure
It refers to the core elements of social change which serve as a foundation for the process of social development of a country. It contributes to economic processes indirectly and from outside the system of production and distribution, e.g. educational institutions, hospitals, sanitary conditions and housing facilities, etc.
Economic infrastructure
It refers to all such elements of economic change which serve as a foundation for the process of economic growth. These helps in the process of production directly. e.g. transportation, communication, energy/power, etc.
Difference between Social and Economic Infrastructure

• Relevance of Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the support system which provides support to the efficient working of a modem industrial economy. Modem agriculture also largely depends on it
• for speedy and large scale transportation of seeds, pesticides, fertilisers, etc.
We use modern roadways, railways and shipping i facilities. In recent times, agriculture also depends on insurance and banking system.
Inadequate infrastructure can have multiple adverse effects on health. Improvements in water supply and – sanitation have a large impact by reducing morbidity (state of being unhealthy or diseased) from major
• waterborne diseases and reducing the severity of disease, when it occurs. Air pollution and safety hazards connected to transportation also effect morbidity particularly in densely populated areas.
Importance of Infrastructure in Development
Folloiving points highlights how exactly infrastructure contributes to the process of growth and development
(i) Impact on Productivity Infrastructure plays an major role in the raising productivity, with improved roadways, warehouses etc farmers can easily sell their products in different markets. Also irrigation facilities has reduced dependence on monsoon for water needs, which not only increases productivity but also production level.
(ii) Induces Investment Infrastructure induces investment. Low investment points to low level of production and backwardness of an economy. A well developed infrastructure attracts foreign investors. Which gives investment avenues and profitable ventures.
(iii) Generates Linkages in Production Better means of transport and communication, robust system of banking and finance generates better inter-industrial linkages. It is a situation when expansion of one industry facilitates the expansion of the other.
(iv) Enhances Size of the Market Infrastructure enhances the size of the market as large scale of production can capture more market.
(v) Enhances Ability to Work Social infrastructure increases the quality of life of workers, thereby increasing their efficiency. Health care centres, educational institutions and other such facilities inherit skills which increases ability and efficiency to work.
(vi) Facilities Outsourcing India is emerging to be a global destination for all kinds of outsourcing. For example, call centres, study centres, medical
(vii) transcription and such other services, owing largely – to its sound system of social and economic infrastructure.

The State of Infrastructure in India

Traditionally, the government has been solely responsible for developing the country’s infrastructure. But it was found that the government’s investment in infrastructure was inadequate. Today, the private sector by itself and also in joint partnership with the public sector has started playing a very important role in infrastructure development. India invests only 5% of its GDP on infrastructure, which is for below than that of China and Indonesia.

Infrastructure State in Rural Area
Majority of India’s population still lives in rural area.
Infrastructure state in rural India can be understood from the following points
(i) Despite of so much technological progress, women of rural India are still using bio fuels to meet their daily energy requirement.
(ii) Women go long distances to fetch water and other basic needs.
(iii) The Census 2001 shows that in rural India, only 56% households have an electricity connection and 43% still use kerosene.
(iv) About 90% of the rural households use bio fuels for cooking.
(v) Tap water availability is limited to only 24% rural households.
(vi) About 76% of the population drinks water from open resources such as wells, ponds, etc.
(vii) Access to improved sanitation in rural areas was only 20%.
Future Prospects in India
Some economists have projected that India will become the third biggest economy in the world, a few decades from now. For that to happen, India will have to boost its infrastructure investment.
In an economy as the income rises, requirement of infrastructure will change. For low income countries, basic infrastructure services like irrigation, transport and power are more important. On the contrary the developed economies require more service related to infrastructure. That is why, share of power and telecommunication infrastructure is greater in high income countries.
Thus, development of infrastructure and economic development go hand in hand. Obviously, if proper attention is not paid to infrastructure development, economic development will be severely affected.
In this chapter, we will focus only two kinds of infrastructure, those associated with energy and health. Other types of infrastructure are not included in our syllabus.
Energy
Energy is a critical aspect of development process of a nation. It is essential for industries, agriculture and related areas like production and transportation of fertilisers, pesticides and farm equipment. It is also required in house for cooking, household lighting and heating etc.
Sources of Energy
1. Conventional Sources of Energy
There are two types of conventional sources of energy
(i) Commercial Sources Coal, petroleum and electricity are commercial sources of energy as they bought and sold in the market. They account for over 40% of total energy sources consumed in India. Commercial sources of energy are generally exhaustible in nature.
(ii) Non-commercial Sources Fire wood, agricultural waste and dried dung non-commercial sources of energy. They are found in nature free of cost. Non-commercial sources are generally renewable in nature.
♦ More then 60% of Indian households depend on the traditional sources of energy. In meeting their regular cooking and heating needs.
2. Non-conventional Sources of Energy
Solar energy, wind energy and tidal power are non-conventional sources. India has almost unlimited potential for producing all three types of energy if some appropriate cost effective technologies (that are already available) are used.
Note India is fifth largest producer of wind energy.
Difference between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy
Conventional Sources of Energy
These are the traditional sources of energy which are generally bought and sold in the market.
In India, conventional sources are being used in total disregard to the environment, i.e. These sources creates pollution.

Primary and Final Sources of Energy
Primary Sources They are those sources which are the gift of nature to the Earth. They do not require any transformation before their use. They are directly used as the inputs of production. e.g., coal, lignite, petroleum, gas, etc.
Final Sources They sources are used as a final product.
This involves transformation process, transforming inputs into final outputs like transformation of coal energy into electricity.
Consumption Pattern of Commercial Energy in India
At present, commercial energy consumption makes up about 74% of the total energy consumed in India. This includes coal with the largest share of 54%, followed by oil at 33%, natural gas at 9% and hydro energy at 3%. Non-commercial energy sources account for over 26% ofthe total energy consumption.
The critical feature of India’s energy sector and its linkages to the economy, is the import dependence on crude and petroleum products, which is likely to grow rapidly to more than 100% of the need in the near future.
Sectoral Pattern of Energy Consumption in India
Earlier till 1953-54, transport sector was the largest consumer of commercial energy but it declined thereafter and industrial sector has been increasing. The share of oil and gas is highest among all commercial energy consumption.
Power/Electricity
The most visible form of energy, which is often identified with progress in modern civilisation, is power, commonly called electricity. It is a critical component of infrastructure that determines the economic development of a country. The growth rate of demand for power is generally higher than the GDP growth rate. Studies point that in order to have 8% per annum, power supply needs to grow around 1. annually.
In 2010-11, thermal sources accounted for almost 65% generation capacity in India. Hydel and wind power accounted for 32.5% while nuclear power accounted only 2.5%. India’s energy policy encourages two energy sources; hydel and wind, as they do not rely on fossil fuel and hence, avoid carbon emissions and are renewable in nature. It has resulted in faster growth of electricity produced from there two sources.

Atomic energy is an important source of electric power. At present, nuclear energy accounts for only 2.5% of total energy consumption, against a global average of 13% which is too low. Hence, some scholars suggest to generate more electricity through atomic sources.
• Use of Solar Energy in Thane
There is a use of solar energy on large scale in Thane city. The use of solar energy, which was considered a somewhat far fetched concept, has bought in real benefits and results in cost and energy saving, In this city, solar energy is being applied to heat water, power traffic signals and advertising hoardings, The experiment is lead by Thane Municipal Corporation. It has made compulsory for all new buildings in the city to install solar water heating system.
Some Challenges in the Power Sector
Energy, in a developing country like India, is a basic put required to sustain economic growth and to provide basic amenities of life to the entire population of a country.
Energy generated at various power stations is not totally used by the consumers, some of it is consumed by the power station itself and some of it is wasted in transmission.
Some of the challenges that India’s power sector faces today are
(i) India’s installed capacity to generate electricity is , not sufficient to feed an annual economic growth of 9%. At present, India is able to and only 20,000 MW a year. Even the installed capacity is under utilised.
(ii) State Electricity Boards (SEBs) which distribute electricity, incur losses which exceed ? 500 billion due to transmission and loss in distribution, wrong pricing of electricity and other inefficiences.
(iii) Private sector power generators are yet to play their role in a major way, same is the case with foreign investors.
(iv) There is general public unrest due to high power tariffs and prolonged power cuts in different parts of the country.
(v) Thermal power plants which are the mainstay of India’s power sector, are facing shortage of raw material and coal supplies.
Continued economic development and raising population is driving the demand for more energy than what India is currendy producing. Instead of investing in already installed power sector, government has shifted interest into the private sector particularly for the distribution of electricity at much higher prices.
Power Distribution : The Case of Delhi
Since, independence power management in the capital has changed hands four times. The Delhi State Electricity Board (DSEB) was set up in 1951. This was succeeded by the Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking (DESU) in 1958. The Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB) came into existence as SEB in February 1997.
Now the distirbutioq of electricity vests with two leading private sector companies—Reliance Energy Limited (BSES Rajdhani Power Limited and BSES Yamuna Power Limited) and Tata—Power Limited (TPDDL). They supply electricity to approximately 28 lakh customers in Delhi.
The tariff structure and other regulatory issues are monitored by the Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission (DERC). Though it was expected that there will be greater improvement in power distribution and the consumers will benefit in a major way, experience shows unsatisfactory results.
Health
A person’s ability to work depends largely on his health. Good health enhances the quality of life. Health is not only absence of disease but also the ability to realise one’s potential. It is a yardstick of one’s well being.
Health is an important component of social infrastructure. It is the holistic process related to the overall growth and development of the nation. Scholars assess people’s health by taking into account indicators like infant mortality and maternal mortality rate, life expectancy and nutrition levels, alongwith incidence of communicable and non-communicable diseases.
Development of health infrastructure ensures a country about healthy manpower for production of goods and services.
Health infrastructure includes hospitals, doctors, nurses and other para-medical professionals, beds, equipment required in hospitals and a well developed pharmaceutical industry. Only the presence of infrastructure is not enough to have healthy people but it should be accessable to all the people easily.
State of Health Infrastructure in India
The government has the constitutional obligation to guide and regulate all health related issues such as medical education, adulteration of food, drugs and poisons, medical profession, vital statistics, mental, deficiency and lunacy. Central Council of Health and Family Welfare collects information and renders financial and technical assistance to State Governments, union territories and other bodies for implementation of important health programmes in the country.
State of health infrastructure in India can be understood from the following points
(i) At the village level, a variety of hospitals known as
Primary Health Centres (PHCs) have been set.
(ii) There are large number of hospitals run by voluntary agencies and the private sector, equipped with professionals and para medicaf professionals trained in medical, pharmacy and nursing colleges. (iii) Since independence, there has been a significant expansion in the physical provision of health services.
Public Health Infrastructure in India, 1951-2000

Private Sector Health Infrastructure
In recent time, private health infrastructure has grown largely. Private sector health, infrastructure is explained below
About 70% of the hospitals running in India belong to private sector. Nearly 60% of dispensaries are run by the same private sector.
Private sector has also been contributing significantly in medical education and training, medical technologies and diagnostics, manufacture and sale of pharmaceuticals, hospital construction and medical services.
Health System in India
India’s health infrastructure and healthcare is made up of a three tier system
1. Primary Healthcare
Primary healthcare system in India includes
(i) Education concerning prevailing health problems and methods of identifying, preventing and controlling them.
(ii) Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition and adequate supply of water and basic sanitation.
(iii) Maternal and child health care.
(iv) Immunisation against major infectious diseases and injuries.
(v) Promotion of health and provision of essential drugs.
Auxiliary Nursing Midwife (ANM) is the first person who provides primary healthcare. Primary Health Centres (PHCs), Community Health Centres (CHCs) and sub centres.
2. Secondary Healthcare
When condition of a patient is not managed by PHCs, they are referred to secondary or tertiary hospitals. Health care institutes having better facilities for surgery, X-ray, ECG (Electro Cardio Graph) are called secondary healthcare institutes. They function both as primary health care provider and also provide better health care facilities. They are mostly located in district and headquarters in big towns.
3. Tertiary Healthcare
In tertiary sector, there are the hospitals which have advanced level equipment and medicines and undertake all the complicated health problems, which could not be managed by primary and secondary hospitals.
This sector also includes many premier institutes which not only impart quality medical education and conduct research but also provide specialised health care.
For example, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMSs), Post Graduate Institute (PGI), Chandigarh, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Pondicherry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHNSs), Banglore and All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Kolkata.
Indian Systems of Medicine ASM
It includes six systems, Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Naturopathy and Homeopathy (AYUSNH). At present there are 3529 ISM hospitals 24943 dispensaries and as 6.5 lakhs registered practitioners in India.
Medical Tourism – A Great Opportunity
Now-a-days foreigners visit India for surgeries,liver transplants, dental and even cosmetic care etc, the reason is, our health gervices combine latest medical technologies with qualified professionals and is cheaper for foreigners as compared to costs of similar health careaervices in their own countries. In 2004-05, as many as 150000 foreigners visited India for medical treatment, this figure is likely to increase by 15% each year. Health infrastructure can be upgraded to attract more foreigners to India.
ISM has huge potential and can solve a large part of our health care problems because they are effective, safe, and inexpensive.
Indicators of Health an Health Infrastructure :critical Appraisal
(i) Health status of the country can be assessed through indicators such as infant mortality and maternal mortality rates, life expectancy and nutrition levels, alongwith the incidence of communicable diseases.
iholars argue that there is greater scope for the role of government in the health sector.

Source World Health Statistics 2011. www.worldbank.org
From the given table, following facts can be concluded
• India’s expenditure on health sector is only 4.2% of total GDP. This is very low as compared to other countries, both developing and developed.
• India has about 17% of the world’s population but it bears a frightening 20% of the global burden of diseases.
• Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) is an indicator used by experts to gauge the number of people dying prematurely due to a particular disease as well as the number of years spent by them in state of‘disability’ Owing to the disease.
• Every year around five lakh children die due to water borne diseases. The danger of AIDS is also looming large.
• Malnutrition and inadequate supply of vaccines lead to the death of 2.2 million children every year.
• At present, less than 20% c the population utilises public health facilities.
• Only 38% of PHC’s, have quired number of doctors and
only 30% of PHC’s have sutTK stock of medicines.
Urban-rural and Poor-rich Divide
Differences in medical healthcare between urban – rural and poor-rich can be understood from the points given below
(i) Only one-fifth of total hospitals are located in rural areas. Rural India has about half the number of dispensaries. People in rural areas do not have sufficient medical infrasctructure. This lead to difference in the health status of people. Out of 7 lakhs beds, roughly 11% are available in rural areas.
(ii)There are only 0.36% hospital for every one lakh people in rural areas while urban areas have 3.6% hospitals for the same number of people.
(iii) The PHCs located in rural areas do not offer even X-ray or blood testing facilities which, for a city dweller, constitutes basic healthcare. Even though 315 recognised medical colleges produce 30,000 medical graduates every year. Still there is shortage of doctors in rural areas. One-fifth of these doctors migrate from one coutry to -another for better job opportunities.
(iv) The poorest 20% of Indians living in both urban and rural areas spend 12% of their income on healthcare while the rich spend only 2%.
(v) Percentage of people who have no access to proper care has risen from 15 in 1986 to 24 in 2003.
Women’s Health
Women constitute about half the total population in India. They suffer many disadvantages as compared to men in the areas of education, participation in economic activities and health care. The child sex ratio has been detonated from 927 in 2001 to 914 in 2011.
There is growing incidence of female foeticide in the country. Close to 300000 girls under the age of 15 are not only married but have already borne children, at least once.
More than 50% of married women between the age group of 15 and 49 years suffer from anaemia caused by iron deficiency. It has contributed to 19% of maternal deaths. Abortions are major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in India.
Health : A Vital Public Good and a Basic Human Right All citizens can get better health facilities if public health services are decentralised. Success against diseases depends on education and efficient health infrastructure. So it is necessary to create awareness on health and provide efficient system. The role of telecom and IT in this regard is very important. The ultimate goal should be to help people move towards a better quality of life.

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NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Multiple Choice Questions
Single Correct Answer Type
Q1. Two students performed the same experiment separately and each one of them recorded two readings of mass which are given below. Correct reading of mass is 3.0 g. On the basis of given data, mark the correct option out of the following statements.

Results of both the students are neither accurate nor precise.
(b) Results of student A are both precise and accurate.
(c) Results of student B are neither precise nor accurate.
(d) Results of student B are both precise and accurate.
Sol:

For both the students, average value is close to the correct value. Hence, readings of both are accurate. But readings of student A are also close to each other (differ only by 0.02) and also close to the average value, hence readings of A are also precise. But readings of B are not close to each other (differ by 0.1) and hence are not precise. Thus, results of student A are both precise and accurate.

Q2. A measured temperature on Fahrenheit scale is 200°F. What will this reading be on Celsius scale?
(a) 40°C
(b) 94°C
(c) 93.3°C
(d) 30°C

Q3. What will be the molarity of a solution, which contains 5.85 g of NaCl(s) per 500 mL?

(a) 4 mol L^-1
(b) 20 mol L^-1         
(c) 0.2 mol L^-1       
(d) 2 mol L ^-1

Q4. If 500 mL of a 5 M solution is diluted to 1500 mL, what will be the molarity of the solution obtained?
(a) 1.5 M
(b) 1.6 M
(c) 0.017 M
(d) 1.59 M

Q5. The number of atoms present in one mole of an element is equal to Avogadro number. Which of the following elements contains the greatest number of atoms?
(a) 4gHe (b) 46gNa (c) 0.40 gCa (d) 12 g He
Sol: (d) As we know that

Hence, 12 g of He contains the greatest number of atoms.

Q6. If the concentration of glucose (C₆H₁₂0₆) in blood is 0.9 g L^-1, what will be the molarity of glucose in blood?
(a) 5 M  
(b) 50 M 
(c) 0.005 M
(d) 0.5 M

Q7. What will be the molality of the solution containing 18.25 g of HCl gas in 500 g of water?
(a) 0.1 m (b) 1 M (c) 0.5 m (d) 1 m

Q8. One mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10²³ atoms/molecules. Number of molecules of H₂S0₄ present in 100 mL of 0.02 M H₂S0₄ solution is __________
(a)12.044 x 10²⁰ molecules
(b) 6.022 x 10²³ molecules
(c) 1 x 10²³ molecules        
(d) 12.044 x 10²³ molecules

Q9. What is the mass per cent of carbon in carbon dioxide?
(a) 0.034%
(b) 27.27%
(c) 3.4%
(d) 28.7%

Sol: b) Molecular mass of C0₂ =1×12 + 2×16 = 44 g
1 g molecule of C0₂ contains 1 g atom of carbon
44 g of C0₂ contains C = 12 g of carbon
% of C in CO₂ = 12/44 x 100 =27.27%
Hence, the mass per cent of carbon in C0₂ is 27.27%.

Q10. The empirical formula and molecular mass of a compound are CH₂0 and 180g respectively. What will be the molecular formula of the compound?
(a) C₉H₁₈0₉,            
(b) CH₂0                 
(c) C₆H_i20₆             
(d) C₂H₄0₂

Sol: (c) Empirical formula mass = 12 + 2+ 16 = 30

Q11. If the density of a solution is 3.12 g mL¹, the mass of 1.5 mL solution in significant figures is________ 

(a) 4.7 g                                                  
(b) 4680 x 10^-3 g
(c) 4.680 g                                              
(d) 46.80 g

Sol: (a) Density of solution = 3.12 g mL^-1
Volume of solution =1.5 mL
Mass of solution = Volume x Density
= 1.5 mL x 3.12 g mL^-1
= 4.68 g = 4.7 g (up to 2 significant figures)

Q12. Which of the following statements about a compound is incorrect?
(a) A molecule of a compound has atoms of different elements.
(b) A compound cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical methods of separation.
(c) A compound retains the physical properties of its constituent elements.
(d) The ratio of atoms of different elements in a compound is fixed.
Sol: (c) A compound does not retain the physical or chemical properties of its constituent elements.

Q13. Which of the following statements is correct about the reaction given below? 4Fe(s) + 30₂(g) →2Fe₂0₃(s)

(a) Total mass of iron and oxygen in reactants = total mass of iron and oxygen in product, therefore it follows law of conservation of mass.
(b) Total mass of reactants = total mass of product; therefore, law of multiple proportions is followed.
(c) Amount of Fe₂0₃ can be increased by taking any one of the reactants (iron or oxygen) in excess.
(d) Amount of Fe₂0₃ produced will decrease if the amount of any one of the reactants (iron or oxygen) is taken in excess.
Sol: (a) 4Fe + 30₂ —> 2Fe₂0₃ follows law of conservation of mass since mass of reactants is equal to mass of products.

Q14. Which of the following reactions is not correct according to the law of conservation of mass?
(a) 2Mg(s) + 0₂(g) →2MgO(s)
(b) C₃H₈(g) + 0₂(g) →C0₂(g) + H₂O(g)
(c) P₄(s) + 50₂(g) →P₄O₁₀(s)
(d) CH₄(g) + 20₂(g) → C0₂(g) + 2H₂0(g)

Sol: (b) C₃H₈ + 0₂ → C0₂ + H₂0

Since the reaction is not balanced, hence, mass of reactants and products are different. It is against the law of conservation of mass.

Q15. Which of the following statements indicates that law of multiple proportions is being followed?
(a) Sample of carbon dioxide taken from any source will always have carbon and oxygen in the ratio 1:2.
(b) Carbon forms two oxides namely C0₂ and CO, where masses of oxygen which combine with fixed mass of carbon are in the simple ratio 2:1.
(c) When magnesium bums in oxygen, the amount of magnesium taken for the reaction is equal to the amount of magnesium in magnesium oxide formed.
(d) At constant temperature and pressure 200 mL of hydrogen will combine with 100 mL oxygen to produce 200 mL of water vapour.
Sol: (b) The element, carbon, combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. In C0₂, 12 parts by mass of carbon combine with 32 parts by mass of oxygen while in CO, 12 parts by mass of carbon combine with 16 parts by mass of oxygen.
Therefore, the masses of oxygen combine with a fixed mass of carbon (12 parts) in C02 and CO are 32 and 16 respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 32 : 16 or 2 : 1 to each other.
This is an example of law of multiple proportion.

More than One Correct Answer Type

Q16. One mole of oxygen gas at STP is equal to____ .
(a) 6. 022 x 10²³ molecules of oxygen
(b) 6.022 x 10²³ atoms of oxygen
(c) 16 g of oxygen .
(d) 32 g of oxygen

Sol:(a_,d) 1 mole of 0₂ gas at STP = 6.022 x 10²³ molecules of 0₂ (Avogadro number) = 32 g of 0₂. Hence, 1 mole of oxygen gas is equal to molecular weight of oxygen as well as Avogadro number.

Q17. Sulphuric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide as follows:

H₂S0₄ + 2NaOH →Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂0
When 1 L of 0.1 M sulphuric acid solution is allowed to react with 1 L of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution, the amount of sodium sulphate formed and its molarity in the solution obtained is
(a) 0.1 mol L^-1
(b) 7.10 g
(c) 0.025 mol L^-1
(d) 3.55 g

Sol: (b, c) Moles of H₂S0₄ taken = 0.1 moles
Moles of NaOH taken = 0.1 moles

As H₂S0₄ and NaOH react in ratio 1:2, so 0.1 moles of H₂S0₄ reacts with  0.2 mole of NaOH which we don’t have.

0.1 mole of NaOH reacts with 0.05 mole of H₂S0₄, so NaOH is Limiting reactant. Product is calculated w.r.t limiting reactant so Number of moles of Na₂S0₄ formed will also be equal to 0.05.
Mass of Na₂S0₄ = 0.05 x 142 = 7.1 g

Q18. Which of the following pairs have the same number of atoms?

Q19. Which of the following solutions have the same concentration?
(a) 20 g of NaOH in 200 mL of solution
(b) 0.5 mol of KC1 in 200 mL of solution
(c) 40 g of NaOH in 100 mL of solution
(d) 20 g of KOH in 200 mL of solution

Q20. 16 g of oxygen has the same number of molecules as in 
(a) 16 g of CO
(b) 28 g of N₂            
(c) 14g of N₂
(d) 1.0 gof H₂,

Q21. Which of the following terms are unitless?
(a) Molality
(b) Molarity
(c) Mole fraction
(d) Mass per cent

Q22. One of the statements of Dalton’s atomic theory is given below:
“Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio”
Which of the following laws in not related to this statement?
(a) Law of conservation of mass
(b) Law of definite proportions
(c) Law of multiple proportions
(d) Avogadro law
Sol:(a, d) The statement is related to law of definite proportions and law of multiple proportions.

Short Answer Type Questions
Q23. What will be the mass of one atom of C-12 ingrams?
Sol: 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12 g = 6.022 x 10²³ atoms. 6.022 x 10²³ atoms of carbon-12 have mass = 12 g

Q24. How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the following calculations?
2.5×1.25×3.5/ 2.01

division, the number of significant figures will be 2.
Since the least number of significant figures from the given figures is 2 (in 2.5 and 3.5) the result should not have more than two significant figures.

Q25. What is the symbol for SI unit of mole? How is the mole defined?
Sol: Symbol for SI unit of mole is mol. A mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains as-many entities as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon – in C-12 isotope.

Q26. What is the difference between molality and molarity?
Sol: Molality is the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent, whereas molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of a solution. Molality is independent of temperature, whereas molarity depends on temperature.

Q27. Calculate the mass per cent of calcium, phosphorus and oxygen in calcium phosphate Ca₃(P0₄)₂.

Q28. 4 L of dinitrogen reacted with 22.7 L of dioxygen and 45.4 L of nitrous oxide was formed. The reaction is given below:
2N₂(g) + 0₂(g) —> 2N₂0(g)
Which law is being obeyed in this experiment? Write the statement of the law.

Sol: Gases are reacting together to form gaseous products. Ratio of volumes of gases:
N₂: 0₂: N₂0 = 45.4 : 22.7 : 45.4                                              –
=2:1:2
Which is a simple whole number ratio. Hence the experiment proves Gay- Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes. This law states that gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction in a simple whole number ratio by volume provided that all gases are at the same temperature and pressure.

Q29. If two elements can combine to’form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in whole number ratio.
(a) Is this statement true?
(b) If yes, according to which law?
(c) Give one example related to this law
Sol: (a) Yes, the statement is true.
(b) According to law of multiple proportions.
(c) Hydrogen and oxygen react to produce two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide. Masses of oxygen which combine with fixed mass of hydrogen are in simple ratio.

Masses of oxygen (16 and 32) which combine with fixed mass of hydrogen (2) are in the ratio of 16 : 32 or 1 : 2.

Q31. Hydrogen gas is prepared in the laboratory by reacting dilute HC1 with granulated zinc. Following reaction takes place:

Zn + 2HC1 → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas liberated at STP when 32.65 g of zinc reacts with HC1. 1 mol of a gas occupies 22.7 L volume of STP; atomic mass of Zn = 65.3 u.
Sol: Given that, mass of Zn = 32.65 g

1 mole of gas occupies = 22.7 L volume at STP Atomic mass of Zn = 65.3u
The given equation is

Q32. The density of 3 molal solution of NaOH is 1.110 g mL ^-1. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Sol: 3 molal solution of NaOH means 3 moles of NaOH is dissolved in 1000 g of water.
But 3 moles of NaOH = 3 x 40 g = 120 g
120 g = 1120 g

Q33. Volume of a solution changes with change in temperature, then, will the molality of the solution be affected by temperature? Give reason for your answer.
Sol: No, molality of a solution does not change with temperature since mass remains unaffected by temperature.

Q34. If 4 g of NaOH dissolves in 36 g of H₂0, calculate the mole fraction of each component in the solution. Also, determine the molarity of solution (specific gravity of solution is 1 g mL^-1).

Q35. The reactant which is entirely consumed in reaction is known as limiting reagent. In the reaction 2A + 4B —> 3C + 4D, when 5 moles of A react with 6 moles of B, then

(i) which is the limiting reagent?
(ii) calculate the amount of C formed.

Matching Column Type Questions
36. Match the following :

Q37. Match the following physical quantities with units

Sol: (i →e), (ii → d), (iii → b), (iv →g), (v —> c), (vi —» f), (vii → a), (viii → i)

(i) Molarity = mol L^-1
(ii) Mole fraction = no units
(iii) Mole = mol
(iv) Molality = mol kg ³
(v) Pressure = Pascal or N m ²
(vi)Luminous intensity = Candela
(vii) Density = g mL^-1
(viii) Mass = kg

Assertion and Reason Type Questions
In the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) followed by a statement of Reason (R) is given. Choose the correct option out of the choices given below each question.
38. Assertion (A): The empirical mass of ethene is half of its molecular mass. Reason (R): The empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a compound.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) A is true but R is false
(c) A is false but R is true
(d) Both A and R are false.
Sol: (a) Empirical formula of ethene = CH₂
Empirical formula mass of ethene =14 amu

= 1/2 — x molecular mass of ethene .

Empirical formula shows that ethene has (C : H):: 1 : 2

Q39. Assertion (A): One atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Reason (R): Carbon-12 isotope is the most abundant isotope of carbon and has been chosen as standard.

(a) Both A and R are the true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) Both A and R are false.

Sol: (b) 1 amu = —1/12 Mass of one C¹² atom
C¹² isotope is considered as standard for defining the atomic and molecular mass.

Q40. Assertion (A): Significant figures for 0.200 is 3 whereas for 200 it is 1.
Reason (R): Zero at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are not on the right side of the decimal point.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) Both A and R are false.
Sol: (c) Significant figures for 0.200 = 3
Significant figure for 200 = 1
Zeros at the end of a number without decimal- point, may or may not be significant depending on the accuracy of measurement.

Q41. Assertion (A): Combustion of 16 g of methane gives 18 g of water.
Reason (R): In the combustion of methane, water is one of the product.
(a) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(b) A is true but R is false
(c) A is false but R is true.
(d) Both A and R are false.

Sol: (c) CH₄(g) + 20₂(g) → C0₂(g) + 2H₂0(g)

16 g of CH₄ on complete combustion will give 36 g of water

Long Answer Type Question
Q42. A vessel contains 1.6 g of dioxygen at STP (273.15 K, 1 atm pressure). The gas is now transferred to another vessel at constant temperature, where pressure becomes half of the original pressure. Calculate
(i) volume of the new vessel.
(ii) number of molecules of dioxygen.

Q43. Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HC1 to give CaCl₂ and C0₂ according to the reaction given below:

CaC0₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + C0₂(g) + H₂O(l)

What mass of CaCl₂ will be formed when 250 mL of 0.76 M HC1 reacts with 1000 g of CaC0₃? Name the limiting reagent. Calculate the number of moles of CaCl₂ formed in the reaction.

Since HCl on complete consumption gives lesser amount of product hence HC1 will be limiting reagent and the number of moles of CaCl₂ formed will be 0.095 mol.

Q43. Define the law of multiple proportions. Explain it with two examples. How does this law point to the existence of atoms?
Sol: Law of multiple proportions: When two elements combine to form two or more chemical compounds, then the masses of one of the elements which combine with a fixed mass of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another, e.g., carbon combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

The masses of oxygen which combine with a fixed mass of carbon in C0₂ and CO are 32 and 16 respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 32 : 16 or 2 : 1 to each other. For example, sulphur combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, sulphur trioxide and sulphur dioxide.

The masses of oxygen which combine with a fixed mass of sulphur in S0₃ and S0₂ are 48 and 32 respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 48 : 32 or 3 : 2 to each other. This law shows that there are constituents which combine in a definite proportion. These constituents may be atoms. Thus, the law of multiple proportions shows the existence of atoms which combine to form molecules.

Q44. A box contains some identical red coloured balls, labeled as A, each weighing 2 grams. Another box contains identical blue coloured balls, labeled as B, each weighing 5 grams. Consider the combinations AB, AB₂, A₂B and A₂B₃ and show that law of multiple proportions is applicable.

Sol:

NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry

The post NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry appeared first on Learn CBSE.

NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 2 Structure of Atom

Q1. Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment?
(a) Most of the space in the atom is empty.
(b) The radius of the atom is about 10 ^-10 m while that of nucleus is 10 ^-15
(c) Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy called orbits.
(d) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

Sol: (c) The concept of circular paths of fixed energy was proposed by Bohr and not derived from Rutherford’s scattering experiment.

Q2. Which of the following options does not represent ground state electronic configuration of an atom?

Sol: (b) Correct configuration in ground state should be 1 s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p^b3d¹⁰4s¹

Q3. The probability density plots of Is and 2s orbitals are given in the following figures.

The density of dots in a region represents the probability density of finding electrons in the region.On the basis of the above diagram, which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a) 1s and 2s orbitals are spherical in shape.
(b) The probability of finding the electron is maximum near the nucleus.
(c) The probability of finding the electron at a given distance is equal in all directions.
(d) The probability density of electrons for 2s orbital decreases uniformly as distance from the nucleus increases.
Sol: (d) The probability density of electrons for 2s orbital first increases then decreases and after that it begins to increase again.

Q4. Which of the following statements is not correct about the characteristics of cathode rays?
(a) They start from the cathode and move towards the anode.
(b) They travel in straight line in the absence of an external electrical or magnetic field.
(c) Characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of electrodes in cathode ray tube.
(d) Characteristics of cathode rays depend upon the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube.
Sol:(d) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged material particles called electron. They were discovered by William Crookes. The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of electrodes and the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.

Q5. Which of the following statements about the electron is incorrect?
(a) It is a negatively charged particle.
(b) The mass of electron is equal to the mass of neutron.
(c) It is a basic constituent of all atoms.
(d) It is a constituent of cathode rays.
Sol: (b) The mass of electron is very small as compared to the mass of the neutron. Mass of electron = 9.1 x 10^-31 kg Mass of neutron = 1.674 x 10^-27 kg

Q6. Which of the following properties of atom could be explained correctly by Thomson Model of atom?
(a) Overall neutrality of atom.
(b) Spectra of hydrogen atom.
(c) Position of electrons, protons and neutrons in atom.
(d) Stability of atom.
Sol: (a) According to Thomson model of atom, the mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the atom. This model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom.

Q7. Two atoms are said to be isobars if
(a) they have same atomic number but different mass number.
(b) they have same number of electrons but different number of neutrons.
(c) they are same number of neutrons but different number of electrons.
(d) Sum of the number of protons and neutrons is same but the number of protons is different.
Sol: (d) Isobars have different atomic number, i.e., number of protons but same mass number, i.e., sum of number of protons and neutrons.

Q8. The number of radial nodes for 3p orbital is .
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 1
Sol: (d) Number of radial nodes = n-1 – 1
For 3p orbital, n = 3 – 1 – 1 = 1
Number of radial nodes = 3 – 1 – 1 = 1

Q9. Number of angular nodes for 4d orbital is __________ .
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1
Sol: (c) Number of angular nodes in 4d orbital = l = 2

Q10. Which of the following is responsible to rule out the existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons?
(a) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(b) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
(c) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
(d) Aufbau principle
Sol: (b) According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, the position and velocity of an electron cannot be determined simultaneously with accuracy which rules out the existence of fixed paths.

Q11. Total number of orbitals associated with third shell will be _______.
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 9
(d) 3
Sol: (c) No of orbitals in 3^rd shell (n = 3) = n² = 3² = 9.

Q12. Orbital angular momentum depends on
(a) l
(b) n and l
(c) n and m
(d) m and s

Q13. Chlorine exists in two isotopic forms, Cl-37 and Cl-35, but its atomic mass is 35.5. This indicates the ratio of Cl-37 and Cl-35 is approximately
(a) 1 : 2
(b) 1 : 1
(c) 1:3
(d) 3:1

Q14. The pair of ions having same electronic configuration is _______

Q15. For the electrons of oxygen atom, which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Z_eff for an electron in a 2s orbital is the same as Z_eff for an electron in a 2p
(b) An electron in the 2s orbital has the same energy as an electron in the 2p
(c) Z_eff for an electron in Is orbital is the same as Z_eff for an electron in a 2s orbital.
(d) The two electrons present in the ?s orbital have spin quantum numbers m_s but of opposite sign.

Q16. If traveling at same speeds, which of the following matter waves have the shortest wavelength?
(a) Electron
(b) Alpha particle (He^2- )
(c) Neutron           
(d) Proton

More than One Correct Answer Type

Q17. Identify the pairs which are not of isotopes?

Q18. Out of the following pairs of electrons, identify the pairs of electrons present in degenerate orbitals:
(a) (i) n = 3, l = 2, m_l = -2, m_s = -1/2
(ii) n = 3, l= 2, m_l = -1, m_s = -1/2
(b) (i) n = 3, l = 1,  m_l = 1,    m_s = +1/2
(ii)     n =  3, l = 2,  m_l = 1,   m_s = +1/2
(c) (i) n = 4, l = 1,  m_l = 1,  m_s = +1/2
(ii) n =  3, l = 2,  m_l = 1,   m_s = +1/2
(d) (i) n = 3, l = 2, m_l = +2, m_s = -1/2
(ii)n = 3, l = 2, m_l = +2, m_s = +1/2

Sol: (a, d) Degenerate orbitals mean the orbitals of the same sub-shell of the same main shell, i.e., their n and l values are the same. Other two pairs have different values of n and l hence, cannot be having the same energy.

Q19. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are correct?

Sol: (b, c) If n = 1, l ≠ 1. Hence, (a) is wrong.
If n = 2, l= 0, 1. For l = 1, m = -1, 0, +1. Hence (b) is correct.
If n = 3, l= 0, 1,2. For l = 2, m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2. Hence (c) is correct.
If n = 3, l ≠4. Hence, (d) is wrong.

Q20. In which of the following pairs, the ions are isoelectronic?

Q21. Which of the following statements concerning the quantum numbers are correct?
(a) Angular quantum number determines the three dimensional shape of the orbital.
(b) The principal quantum number determines the orientation and energy of the orbital.
(c) Magnetic quantum number determines the size of the orbital.
(d) Spin quantum number of an electron determines the orientation of the spin of electron relative to the chosen axis.
Sol: (a, d)
(a) Azimuthal quantum number l is also known as orbital angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number. It determines three-dimensional shape of the orbital.
(b) The principal quantum number determines the size of the orbit.
(c) Magnetic quantum number determines the orientation of the electron cloud in a subshell.
(d) An electron spins around its own’ axis, much in a similar way as earth spins around its own axis while revolving around the sun. In other words, an electron has, besides charge and mass, intrinsic spin angular quantum number.

Short Answer Type Questions
Q22. Arrange s, p and d sub-shells of a shell in the increasing order of effective nuclear charge (Z_eff) experienced by the electron present in them
Sol: .s-orbitals shield the electrons from the nucleus more effectively than p-orbitals which in turn shield more effectively than d-orbitals. Hence, the arrangement of subshells in the increasing order of effective nuclear charge is:
d<p< s

Q23. Show the distribution of electrons in oxygen atom (atomic number 8) using orbital diagram.

Q24. Show the distribution of electrons in oxygen atom (atomic number 8) using orbital diagram.

Sol: Ni (28): ls² 2s² 2p⁶ Is² 3p⁶ 3d⁸ 4s²
Ni²⁺ (26): Is² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d⁸
Hence, to form Ni²⁺ ion, it will lose 2 electrons from 4s orbital.

Q25. Which of the following orbitals are degenerate?
3d_xy, 4d_xv, 3d_yz, 3d_z²_:, 4d_yz., 4dz²_:

Sol: Degenerate orbitals are the orbitals of the same subshell of the same main shell. Hence, these are
(3d_xy, 3d _z², 3d_yz) and (4d_xy, 4d_xz, 4d _z²).

Q26. Calculate the total number of angular nodes and radial nodes present in 3p orbital.
Sol:For 3p orbital, n = 3,l= 1
Number of angular nodes = 1=1
Number of radial nodes = n — l —1 = 3—1 — 1 = 1
Q27. The arrangement of orbitals on the basis of energy is based upon their (n +l) value. Lower the value of (n + l), lower is the energy. For orbitals having the same values of (n + I), the orbital with lower value of n will have lower energy.
I. Based upon the above information, arrange the following orbitals in the increasing order of energy.
(a) 1s, 2s, 3s, 2p
(b) 4s, 3s , 3p, 4d
(c) 5p, 4d, 5d, 4f, 6s
(d) 5f, 6d , 7s , 7p
II. Based upon the above information, solve the questions given below:
(a) Which of the following orbitals has the lowest energy?
4d, 4f, 5s, 5p
(b) Which of the following orbitals has the highest energy?
5p, 5d, 5f 6s, 6p

Q28. Which of the following will not show deflection from the path on passing through an electric field?
Proton, cathode rays, electron, neutron.
Sol: Neutron, since it is neutral and cannot be deflected by an electric field.

Q29. An atom having atomic mass number 13 has 7 neutrons. What is the atomic number of the atom?
Sol: Atomic mass number = A = 13. n = 7
As A = n + p p = A — n= 13 —7 = 6
Hence Z = p = 6

Q30. Wavelengths of different radiations are given below:

Q31. The electronic configuration of valence shell of Cu is 3d¹⁰ 4s ¹ and not 3d⁹4s². How is this configuration explained?
Sol: Configuration with completely filled and half-filled orbitals have extra stability. In 3d¹⁰4s¹, d-orbitals are completely filled and s-orbital is half- filled. Hence, it is a more stable configuration.

Q32. The Balmer series in the hydrogen spectrum corresponds to the transition from n₁ = 2 to n₂ = 3, 4,……… This series lies in the visible region. Calculate the wave number of line associated with the transition in Balmer series when the electron moves to n = 4 orbit. (R_H = 109677 cm^-1).

Q33. According to de Broglie, matter should exhibit dual behaviour, that is both particle and wave like properties. However, a cricket ball of mass 100 g does not move like a wave when it is thrown by a bowler at a speed of 100 km/h. Calculate the wavelength of the ball and explain why it does not show wave nature.

Since the wavelength is very small, the wave nature cannot be detected.
NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry

The post NCERT Exemplar Problems Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 2 Structure of Atom appeared first on Learn CBSE.