Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture is part of Geography Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture.

Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
What is the contribution of India in the production of rice in the world? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
India ranked 2nd with the production of 22% rice in the world. Only China produced more rice than India.

Question 2.
What is the meaning of ‘Common Property Resources’ (CRP)? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
Common Property Resources are not owned by any person or group. They are available for all and can be used by any person. These CPRs provide fodder to the livestock and fuel woods for household uses to villagers.

Question 3.
How is the cropping intensity calculated in India? (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
Cropping intensity is calculated in percentage by using the following formula:
Cropping Intensity (Cl) = Gross Cropped Area/Net Sown Area × 100

Question 4.
How is productive irrigation able to achieve high productivity in India? (All Indio 2009)
Answer:
In productive irrigation farming, water is used in high amount in per unit cultivated area. The main objective of this type of farming is to produce more and more yield by providing sufficient moisture to soil for cultivation. Thus, this type of farming can help India to achieve high productivity in India.

3 Marks Questions

Question 5.
Explain the importance of irrigation for agriculture in India. (Delhi 2016)
OR
Why is the demand for water to irrigation increasing day by day in India? Explain any three reasons. (All Indio 2o00)
OR
Why is irrigation necessary in India? Explain any three reasons. (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
Irrigation is necessary for India for the following reasons: To Decrease the Dependency on Monsoon Rainfall After the decades of independence, India is still dependent on monsoon rainfall for agriculture production. Only 33% of agricultural land is irrigated and rest is dependent on rainfall for soil moisture. To decrease the dependency on monsoon, rainfall irrigation is necessary.

To Increase Production Agricultural production under rainfed areas is low and yield is very low. To increase agricultural production in India irrigation is necessary.

To Maintain Balance between Population and Food Production Foodgrain production in India is very low and its growth rate is very low as compared to the increase in population. To provide food to increasing population growth, increase in production of foodgrains is required. Thus, irrigation is necessary.

Question 6.
“Land resources are more crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture.” Support this statement with any three suitable arguments. (Delhi 2015, 2012, 2010)
OR
How is a land resource more crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture in India? Explain.
(All India 2010)
Answer:
Most of the Indians are dependent on agriculture directly or indirectly for their subsistence. Thus, the land resource becomes more important. Importance of land resource in agriculture can be understood by the following points:

• Dependence of agriculture on a land resource is high as compared to the secondary or tertiary sector.
• Agriculture is directly affected by the quality of land but other sectors such as industry or services are not affected by the quality of land.
• Besides agricultural production, ownership of land resource also indicates a social status in rural areas.

Question 7.
Differentiate between protective irrigation and productive irrigation. (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
Differences between protective irrigation and productive irrigation are as follows:

Question 8.
State any two characteristics each of the three distinct cropping seasons of India. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
The three distinct cropping seasons of India are:
Kharif The characteristics of kharif season are as follows:

• Kharif season starts with the onset of South-West monsoon (June-September).
• The major crops which are cultivated in this season are rice, jute, cotton, jowar, bajra, tur and other tropical crops.

Rabi The characteristics of Rabi season are as follows:

• Rabi season in India starts from October- November with the onset of winter to March-April.
• The crops which are cultivated in this season are wheat, gram, mustard and other temperate and subtropical crops because of the low-temperature condition.

Zaid The characteristics of zaid season are as follows:

• Zaid is a short season between rabi and kharif in India (April-June).
• The crops which are cultivated in this season are watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops. Crops are cultivated mainly on irrigation lands.

Question 9.
Explain any three features of dryland farming in India. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The three features of dryland farming in India are as follows:

• It is a type of rainfed farming in which the main source of soil moisture for cultivation is rainfall.
• Dryland farming is done in the areas of rainfall receiving less than 75 cm annually.
• The major crops which are cultivated in these regions are ragi, bajra, moong, gram, gur and other hardy and drought-resistant crops.

Question 10.
Describe any three characteristics of wetland farming in India. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The three characteristics of wetland farming in India are as follows:

• It is a type of rainfed farming in which the main source of soil moisture for cultivation is rainfall.
• Wetland farming is done in the areas having sufficient rainfall to provide sufficient moisture to soil for growing crops.
• The main crops which are cultivated in these regions are rice, jute, sugarcane and other water-intensive crops.

Question 11.
“Land use in a region to a large extent is influenced by the nature of economic activities carried out in that region”. Support the statement by giving three examples from India. (HOTS; Delhi 2012)
Answer:
The three types of changes that have affected land use in India are:

• The size of the economy.
• The composition of an economy (proportion of different sectors).
• Increasing pressure on agricultural land.

Question 12.
Mention any six land use categories in India. (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
Under the land revenue records land use categories are as follows:
Forest Inland revenue records, the forest is the area that is identified and demarcated for forest growth.

Land put to Non-agricultural Uses In this category, all land that is not used in agriculture is included, e.g. settlement, roads, canals, industries, shops, etc.

Barren and Wastelands This category includes all land that is unable to cultivate i.e. unproductive land.

The area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands This type of land is usually found in the outer part of rural settlement where villagers graze their animals.

Culturable Wasteland Land that can be used to cultivate crops by land reclamation and other land quality improvement techniques.
Current Fallow The land where cultivation is not practised for 1 year or less than 1 year is included under this category.

Question 13.
How is the degradation of cultivable land one of the serious problem in India? Explain in any three points. (All Indio 2010)
Answer:
The degradation of cultivable land is one of the serious problems in India as:
1.  Intensive use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation have resulted in the degradation of cultivable land. It has reduced the fertility of the soil in India.

2. Unregulated and over irrigation has created problems of alkalisation and salinisation and waterlogging in irrigated cultivated areas of India. About 8 million hectare land has lost its fertility due to salinisation and alkalisation and about 7 million hectare land have lost its fertility because of water logging in India.

3. The natural fertilisation processes of soil like nitrogen fixation by the cultivation of leguminous crops are not adopted because these crops are displaced with commercial crops such as sugarcane.

Question 14.
Classify Indian farming into two groups on the basis of the main source of moisture for crops. Write two feature of each. (HOTS; Delhi 2010)
Answer:
In India, farming is classified into the following two groups on the basis of moisture available for crops:
Irrigated Farming The features of the irrigated are as follows:

1. In this type of farming, the main source of moisture for a crop is irrigation by various methods like wells, tubewells, etc.
2. Irrigated farming may be of two types on the basis of objective of farming i.e. productive and protective. Productivity can be enhanced by productive irrigation and crops can be saved from drought by providing them with protective irrigation.

Rainfed Farming The features of rainfed farming are as follows:

1. In this type of farming, the main source of moisture for soil and crops is rainfall.
2. Rainfed farming is done in the areas of drylands and wetlands in India. Dryland is areas that receive an annual rainfall of less than 75 cm. Crops cultivated are drought resistant. Wetlands are areas that receive sufficient rainfall to cultivate crops. Main crops are rice, jute, sugarcane and other water-intensive crops.

Question 15.
Explain the three types of changes that have affected land use in India. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
The three types of changes that have affected land use in India are:

1. The size of the economy.
2. The composition of an economy (proportion of different sectors).
3. Increasing pressure on agricultural land.

Question 16.
“Land degradation caused by the human-made process is more harmful than natural processes in India”. Analyse the statement with three suitable examples. (HOTS; Delhi 2009)
Answer:
Human activities are majorly responsible for the degradation of land than natural resources. This degradation has started after Green Revolution where new methods and techniques were used intensively, e.g. chemical fertilisers, irrigation, etc. Unregulated and over irrigation has created problems of organisation, salinisation, and waterlogging in irrigated areas of India.

It is estimated that about 15 million hectare land has lost its fertility due to faulty methods of human. Besides these, shifting cultivation, deforestation, mining activities, etc are human-made processes of land degradation whereas erosion by wind, water, glacial and steep sloping land, etc are natural processes of land degradation.

5 Marks Questions

Question 17.
‘Erratic monsoon’ and ‘Indebtedness’ are the major problems of Indian agriculture. Suggest and explain the measures to’overcome these problems. (HOTS; Delhi 2016)
Answer:
Suggestions for Erratic Monsoon
Nature of monsoon is very erratic in India. It is true that the means of irrigations were developed after independence, but the cultivated area under irrigation is only 33%. So, there should be more stress on developing various means of irrigation especially in unirrigated areas of India.

Water disputes between states should be ended in order to provide equitable water resources to each cultivable land in India. There should be stress on rainwater harvesting technique to improve and recharge the groundwater table. So that farmers can easily harvest their land with the use of these sources. Drought resistant crops should be used more in areas where a shortage of water occurs.

Suggestions for Indebtedness
Encourage co-operative credits in rural areas and private lending should be eliminated. Agriculture should be conducted on a scientific basis so that the income of the farmers would increase and they could meet the unproductive expenses and would not be forced to take any loan. Encourage minimum support price policy for all farmers. Rural banks and cooperative banks should provide storage facilities at cheap interest rates.

Question 18.
“Low productivity and fragmentation of land holding are the major problems of Indian agriculture”. Suggest and explain measures to overcome these problems. (HOTS; Delhi 2016)
Answer:
Measures to overcome the problems of low productivity and are as follows:

1. To aware all the farmers about new technologies like the use of improved implements, seeds, chemicals, manures, etc.
2. Double cropping, better rotation of crops, fighting plant, diseases and pests, etc should be given due emphasis. Different sources of irrigation should be provided to all farmers.
3. Timely soil testing should be done in rural areas by establishing soil testing labs.
4. Institutional credit or loan facilities should be provided to all farmers at low-interest rates, for e.g. Kisan credit card scheme.

Measures to overcome the problems of fragmentation of land holdings are as follows:

1. Big areas of land which are laying waste can be reclaimed and made fit for cultivation.
2. Co-operative farming can be helpful to check the sub-division and fragmentation of holding. This farming would result in the adoption of modern technology on so-called big farms. In this way, agriculture will become a profitable occupation through economies of large-scale farming.
3. There should be framed a new agricultural policy to improve this situation.
4. The stress of population on land should be reduced.

Question 19.
‘Fragmentation of land holdings’ and ‘degradation of cultivable land’ are the serious problems of Indian agriculture. Suggest and explain measures to overcome these problems. (HOTS; All Indio 2016)
Answer:
For measures to overcome the problems of fragmentation of land holdings,

Measures to overcome the problems of low productivity and are as follows:

1. To aware all the farmers about new technologies like the use of improved implements, seeds, chemicals, manures, etc.
2. Double cropping, better rotation of crops, fighting plant, diseases and pests, etc should be given due emphasis. Different sources of irrigation should be provided to all farmers.
3. Timely soil testing should be done in rural areas by establishing soil testing labs.
4. Institutional credit or loan facilities should be provided to all farmers at low-interest rates, for e.g. Kisan credit card scheme.

Measures to overcome the problems of fragmentation of land holdings are as follows:

1. Big areas of land which are laying waste can be reclaimed and made fit for cultivation.
2. Co-operative farming can be helpful to check the sub-division and fragmentation of holding. This farming would result in the adoption of modern technology on so-called big farms. In this way, agriculture will become a profitable occupation through economies of large-scale farming.
3. There should be framed a new agricultural policy to improve this situation.
4. The stress of population on land should be reduced.

Following are some measures for controlling land degradation:

1. Strip farming should be encouraged in which cultivated crops are sown in alternative strips to prevent water movement.
2. Crop rotation should be in practice.
3. In the hilly regions, contour farming should be done. As it is useful in collecting and diverting the runoff to avoid erosion.
4. To minimise waterlogging and salinisation, modem techniques of irrigation in the fields should be adopted.

Question 20.
Explain the importance of foodgrains in the Indian agricultural economy. Describe any three characteristics of rice cultivation. (All India 2015)
Answer:
Foodgrains acquired a special position in the agriculture economy of India. Within agriculture foodgrains production is by far the major activity, covering about two-thirds of the total cropped area in the country.

It dominates both subsistence and commercial farming all over India. Foodgrains provide almost all the calories and proteins consumed by the poor and provide the rural poor with the bulk of their employment and income. Rice, wheat, bajra, maize, pulses (Gram, tur), etc are examples of foodgrains.

Characteristics of rice cultivation are as follows:

1. For most of the Indians, rice is a staple food.
2. About 3000 varieties of rice are grown in various agro-climatic regions of India. India ranked 2nd with the production of 22% of rice in the world.
3. Because of suitable climate conditions, rice can be cultivated twice and even thrice in an agricultural year in Southern India and West Bengal.

Question 21.
Analyse any five major problems of Indian agriculture. (All India 2014)
OR
Describe any five major problems of Indian agriculture. (Delhi 2008)
OR
Describe any five major problems related to Indian agriculture. (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
Major problems related to Indian agriculture are:
Dependence of Erratic Monsoon
Dependence on monsoon for water availability is a major problem of Indian agriculture. Means of irrigation were developed after independence, but the cultivated area under irrigation is only 33%. Rest of the cultivated land is dependent on monsoon for soil moisture.

Low Productivity
India also lags behind in terms of per hectare production and per person production. India is much behind the international level. In India, a large area under cultivation is rainfed. It has a very low yield as compared to the irrigated areas. However, the yield of irrigated areas is low as compared to the international level.

Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness
Majority of farmers are small, marginal and poor. They have no other source of money to improve their condition. They cannot afford highly expensive inputs like the tractor, thresher, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, tools, etc and new technologies. Most of the farmers are indebted by various institutions and moneylenders.

Vast Under-Employment
Agriculture is a work that does not provide employment throughout the year. There is no income during the ploughing field to harvesting crops. Thus, there is a vast under-employment rate in the agricultural sector. Especially in un-irrigated tracts of India. There is a need to provide economic activities to farmers during these seasons.

Degradation of Cultivable Land
Degradation of cultivable land on large-scale has started after the Green Revolution, intensive use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation has resulted in the degradation of cultivable land.

Question 22.
Explain the term cropping intensity. Describe the three cropping seasons in India, (AH Indio 2014)
Answer:
Cropping intensity refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field during one agriculture year. In this process, the area is counted twice or thrice depending upon the number of crops. For three cropping seasons,

The three distinct cropping seasons of India are:
Kharif The characteristics of kharif season are as follows:

• Kharif season starts with the onset of South-West monsoon (June-September).
• The major crops which are cultivated in this season are rice, jute, cotton, jowar, bajra, tur and other tropical crops.

Rabi The characteristics of Rabi season are as follows:

• Rabi season in India starts from October- November with the onset of winter to March-April.
• The crops which are cultivated in this season are wheat, gram, mustard and other temperate and subtropical crops because of the low-temperature condition.

Zaid The characteristics of zaid season are as follows:

• Zaid is a short season between rabi and kharif in India (April-June).
• The crops which are cultivated in this season are watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops. Crops are cultivated mainly on irrigation lands.

Question 23.
“Land use in a region to a large extent is influenced by nature economic activities carried out in that region”. Support the statement by giving three examples from India, (HOTS; Delhi 2012)
OR
Why is the area under pastures decreasing in India? How do the changes in the economy affect changes in land use? Explain. (Delhi 2010)
OR
Explain the three types of changes that have affected land use in India. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Increasing population pressure on land is one of the major reasons which is responsible for the decline in land under pasture and grazing area.
There are three types of economic changes that affected the land use in India which are as follows:

1. As the population increases the size of the economy also increases. High population pressurises land resources and force people to utilise every piece of land. Thus, marginal lands and barren wastelands would be used to support the population.
2. When the composition of an economy changes it also changes the land uses because different sectors use the land for different purposes, e.g. when agricultural area decreases the area under other categories like the area under non-agriculture use increases.
3. With the compositional change in economy and change in land use, an area under agriculture declines, but it does not reduce the population pressure on agriculture land.

Question 24.
How the small size of land holdings and degradation of cultivable land are the two major problems of Indian agriculture? Explain both these problems with examples. (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
Problems of the small size of land holdings in India are as follows:

1. Most of the Indian farmers are small and marginal. About 60% of land holdings are smaller than one hectare and about 40% of land holdings are smaller than 0.5 hectares.
2. The average size of a farm in India is much smaller than in developed countries. This average size of the farm is becoming smaller every year, because of increasing population pressure.
3. Many farmers have two or more farms of small size. It reduces the effort of a farmer in production.
4. Small and fragmented lands are less productive.
5. Government has taken steps to solve this problem by the consolidation of holdings, but it has not been implemented successfully.
6. In non-irrigated rainfed areas, the problem of land degradation also exists. Land degradation in these areas is caused by soil erosion from water and wind. These causes are also increased by human activities in these areas.
   For problems of degradation of cultivable land,

Foodgrains acquired a special position in the agriculture economy of India. Within agriculture foodgrains production is by far the major activity, covering about two-third of the total cropped area in the country.

It dominates both subsistence and commercial farming all over India. Foodgrains provide almost all the calories and proteins consumed by the poor and provide the rural poor with the bulk of their employment and income. Rice, wheat, bajra, maize, pulses (Gram, tur), etc are examples of foodgrains.

Characteristics of rice cultivation are as follows:

• For most of the Indians, rice is a staple food.
• About 3000 varieties of rice are grown in various agro-climatic regions of India. India ranked 2nd with the production of 22% of rice in the world.
• Because of suitable climate conditions, rice can be cultivated twice and even • thrice in an agricultural year in Southern India and West Bengal.

Map-Based Question

Question 25.
On the given political outline map of India, locate and label the following with appropriate symbols.
(i) The leading tea producing state. (Delhi 2015)
OR
The leading state in the production of tea. (All India 2014)
(ii) The leading Jute producing state. (Delhi 2015)
OR
The leading state in the production of Jute. (Delhi 2014)
Answer:

Value Based Questions

Question 26.
“Land use in a region to a large extent is influenced by the nature of economic activities carried out in that region”. Which value is derived from the statement?
Answer:
Following values are derived from the statement:

• Economic dependence
• Social structure
• Community awareness

Question 27.
“Degradation of cultivable land is one of the most serious problems that arise out of faulty in India”. Which value is derived from the statement?
Answer:
Values derived from the above statement are:

• Misuse of environment
• Social unawareness
• Lack of education

We hope the Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture help you. If you have any query regarding Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom are part of NCERT Exemplar Class 6 Science. Here we have given NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom.

NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
A marble tile would feel cold as compared to a wooden tile on a winter morning, because the marble tile
(a) is a better conductor of heat than the wooden tile.
(b) is polished while wooden tile is not polished.
(c) reflects more heat than wooden tile.
(d) is a poor conductor of heat than the wooden tile.
Solution:
(a)

Question 2.
A beggar wrapped himself with a few layers of newspaper on a cold winter night. This helped him to keep himself warm because
(a) friction between the layers of newspaper produces heat.
(b) air trapped between the layers of newspaper is a bad conductor of heat.
(c) newspaper is a conductor of heat.
(d) newspaper is at a higher temperature than the temperature of the surrounding.
Solution:
(b) So, heat from his body would not escape to the surroundings.

Question 3.
Paheli and Boojho measured their body temperature. Paheli found her’s to be 98.6 °F and Boojho recorded 37°C. Which of the following statement is true?
(a) Paheli has a higher body temperature than Boojho.
(b) Paheli has a lower body temperature than Boojho.
(c) Both have normal body temperature.
(d) Both are suffering from fever.
Solution:
(c) Celcius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F) are two different scales used for the measurement of temperature.

Question 4.
Boojho has three thermometers as shown in figure. He wants to measure the temperature of his body and that of boiling water. Which thermometer(s) should he choose?

(a) Thermometer (i) or (iii) for measuring body temperature and (ii) for measuring the temperature of boiling water.
(b) Thermometer (i) for measuring temperature of both.
(c) Thermometer (ii) for measuring temperature of both.
(d) Thermometer (iii)for measuring temperature of both.
Solution:
(a)

Question 5.
Four arrangements to measure temperature of ice in beaker with laboratory thermometer are shown in figure (a, b, c and d). Which one of them shows the correct arrangement for accurate measurement of temperature?

Solution:
(a)

Question 6.
Figure (a-d) shows a student reading a doctor’s thermometer. Which of the figure indicates the correct method of reading temperature?

Solution:
(a)

Question 7.
Figure (a-d) shows the readings on four different thermometers. Indicate which of the reading shows the normal human body temperature?

Solution:
(c) Normal human body temperature is 37 °C.

Question 8.
Shopkeepers selling ice blocks usually cover them with jute sacks. Explain why.
Solution:
Shopkeepers selling ice blocks usually cover them with jute sacks because jute sack is an insulating material so it prevents ice from melting at a faster rate.

Question 9.
A laboratory thermometer A is kept 7 cm away on the side of the flame while a similar thermometer 8 is kept 7 cm above the flame of a candle as shown in figure.

Which of the thermometers, A or 8, will show a greater rise in temperature? Give reason for your answer.
Solution:
Thermometer B will show a greater rise in temperature because hot air rises up or air on the top of the candle flame is getting heated by convection.

Question 10.
To keep her soup warm Paheli wrapped the container in which it was kept with a woollen cloth. Can she apply the same method to keep a glass of cold drink cool? Give reason for your answer.
Solution:
Yes, she can apply the same method to keep a glass of cold drink cool because wool is a poor conductor of heat.

Question 11.
In a mercury thermometer, the level of mercury rises when its bulb comes in contact with a hot object. What is the reason for this rise in the level of mercury?
Solution:
It is a property of mercury to expand when heated. Hence, after expansion it rises in the capillary tube.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 12.
A circular metal loop is heated at point O as shown in figure.

(i) In which direction would heat flow in the loop?
(ii) In which order the pins at points P, Q and R fixed with the help of wax fall if points O, P, Q and 8 are equidistant from each other?
Solution:
(i) The heat will flow in both the directions i.e. from O to P and O to R.
(ii) At first the pins at R and P will fall simultaneously followed by the pin at Q.

Question 13.
In the arrangements A and 8 shown in figure, pins P and Q are fixed to a metal loop and an iron rod with the help of wax. In which case are both the pins likely to fall at different times? Explain.

Solution:
In case B, the pin P will fall before the pin Q because the heat will reach pin P first. In case A, the heat travels in both the directions and pins P and Q will fall simultaneously.

Question 14.
For setting curd, a small amount of curd is added to warm milk. The microbes present in the curd help in setting if the temperature of the mixture remains approximately between 35°C to 40°C. At places, where room temperature remains much below the range, setting of curd becomes difficult. Suggest a way to set curd in such a situation.
Solution:
(i) In order to maintain the desired temperature of the mixture, the container can be wrapped either by woollen material or any other poor conductor of heat. Alternatively, the mixture can be kept in a heat resistant container.
(ii) The container can be kept in the sun or near the gas stove while cooking.

Question 15.
You may have noticed that a few sharp jerks are given to clinical thermometer before using it. Why is it done so?
Solution:
A clinical thermometer has a kink which prevents immediate backflow of the mercury from the tube to the bulb, thus allowing us to read the temperature conveniently. This is the reason why we give a jerk to the thermometer before taking a new reading. The jerk positions the mercury below the kink into the bulb.

Question 16.
Why is it advised not to hold the thermometer by its bulb while reading it?
Solution:
It is advised not to hold the thermometer by its bulb while reading it because on holding a thermometer by its bulb, the mercury in the bulb expands due to our body temperature and gives false reading.

Question 17.
At a camp site there are tents of two shades – one made with black fabric and the other with white fabric. Which one will you prefer for resting on a hot summer afternoon? Give reason for your choice. Would you like to prefer the same tent during winter?
Solution:
(i) On a hot summer afternoon, the tent made up of white fabric will be preferred as white colour is a bad absorber and good reflector of heat.
(ii) No, the black fabric tent will be preferred during winter.

Question 18.
While constructing a house in a coastal area, in which direction should the windows preferably face and why?
Solution:
The windows of houses in coastal areas should preferably face towards the sea as sea breeze will keep it cool during day time.

Question 19.
Observe the picture given in figure. Water is being boiled in a pan of wide base.

(i) Which position P or T will feel warmer?
(ii) Fill up the boxes P and T to indicate the mode of flow of heat to the hand.
Solution:
(i) Position P will feel warmer than T because when the air gets heated, it rises upwards.
(ii) P → Convection
T → Radiation

Question 20.
Look at figure.

The length of wire PQ in case of A is equal to the diameter of the semicircle formed by the wire CDE, in case B. One pin is attached to each wire with the help of wax as shown in figure. Which pin will fall first? Explain.
Solution:
The pin on the wire in case A will fall first as heat will reach to it before it reaches the pin in case B (as CDE > PQ). In both the cases, heat is transferred to the pins mainly through conduction.

We hope the NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

The post NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Chapter 4 Structure of the Atom appeared first on Learn CBSE.

CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 5 Primary Activities is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 5 Primary Activities.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 5 Primary Activities

Hunting and Gathering

• Hunting and gathering are the oldest primitive activities of man. Early man lived in forests and sustained his life by hunting animals. He has also been gathering various products from the forests to satisfy his needs in early days. Thus, early men sustained on edible plants which they hunted and edible plants which they gathered from the forests.
• Early human beings practised these activities with the help of primitive tools, made of stones, twigs or arrows, so the number of animals killed was limited. But now modem equipments led to the widespread poaching of animals due to which hunting is declared illegal.
• Gathering is practised in high latitude zones oi North Canada, Northern Eurasia and Southern Chile, low latitude zones of Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, interiors of South-East Asia. This activity requires small capital investment and low level of technology. Valuable plants, leaves, bark, etc are collected and after simple processing they are sold in local markets. These products cannot compete the world market as synthetic products are lower in price and of better quality.

Pastoralism

• This means domestication and rearing of animals on pastures. This is carried either at subsistence level known as nomadic herding or at commercial level known as commercial livestock rearing.

Nomadic Herding

• Also called pastoral nomadism, it is a primitive activity where herders move with their livestock from one place to another in search of food and water. They rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
• Depending on geographical factors different animals are reared in different regions like cattle in tropical Africa, sheep, goat and camel in Sahara, Asiatic deserts, Yak, llamas in Tibet and Andes, reindeer in Arctic and Sub-Arctic areas. Other areas include Mongolia, Central China, Eurasia, South-West Africa and Madagascar.

Commercial Livestock Rearing

• This practise is associated with western culture, it is more organised and capital intensive. This activity is done on vast ranches that are permanent.
• Modem scientific technology with emphasis on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care is done. Production of meat, wool, hides is done and exported to different world markets.
• Sheep, cpttle, goat and horses are reared in the ranches. Australia, New- Zealand, Argentina, Uruguay, South-West Africa, Western United States and Central Asia are major centers of commercial livestock rearing.

Agriculture
Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio- economic conditions, which gives rise to different types of agriculture systems.
Based on methods of farming, different type of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems:

Subsistence Agriculture
In this type of agriculture, farmers consume all or nearly all of the produce as the size of the farm is very small. It can be divided into primitive subsistence agriculture and intensive subsistence agriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture This is widely practised in tropical areas of Africa/South, Central America and South-East Asia. Different names are given to it in different places like Milpa, Jhuming, Ladang. It is also called slash and bum agriculture or shifting agriculture. Cultivation is done through primitive tools by clearing a patch of land. After 3 to 5 years, when the soil loses its fertility then new land is cleared for cultivation.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture This type of agriculture is practised in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. This type of cultivation is either dominated by wet paddy cultivation and crops other than paddy. The per unit area is high but productivity is low as land holdings are small due to high density of population, less use of machines, family labour involved and farm yard manures are used. Crops other than paddy are wheat, soybean, barley, sorghum grown in Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and Japan. In India, it is practised in Indo-Gangetic plains, dry parts of Western and Southern India.

Plantation Agriculture
This type of agriculture was introduced by the Europeans like cocoa and coffee in West Africa by French, Tea in India and Sri Lanka, rubber in Malaysia, sugarcane and banana in West Indies by British, coconut, sugarcane in Philippines by Spanish, etc.
Here, agriculture is done on large estates or plantations, requires huge capital investment and scientific methods of cultivation.

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

• This is practised in the interiors of semi-arid parts of mid latitudes like Eurasian steppes, Canadian and American Prairies, Pampas of Argentina, velds of South Africa, Australian Downs and Canterbury plains of New Zealand.
• Crops like wheat, corn, barley, oats and rye are grown. Agriculture is mechanised as farms are very large. There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.

Mixed Farming

• This is practised in North-Western Europe, Eastern-North America, parts of Eurasia and temperate latitudes of Southern continents. Here crop cultivation along with animal husbandry is practised. Crops like wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops along with the rearing of farm animals like cattle, sheep, pig, poultry is done to provide extra income.
• There is crop rotation and inter cropping along with high capital expenditure on farm inputs.

Dairy Farming

• It is practised near urban and industrial centers of North-Western Europe, Canada, South-Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania. It is highly capital intensive due to cost of feeding, milching machines, animal sheds, storage facilities, veterinary services, etc.
• It is also labour intensive as rigorous care of I animals is also needed. There is no off seasonr during the year as in case of crop raising.

Mediterranean Agriculture
It is practised on either side of Mediterranean in Europe, North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, Southem-Califomia, some i parts of Chile, South-Western parts of South Africa and South-Western parts of Australia. It is highly specialised commercial agriculture and important supplier of citrus fruits.

Viticulture
This refers to cultivation of grapes in the Mediterranean regions. Inferior grapes are made into raisins and currants while superior grapes are processed into wines. Figs and olives are also cultivated.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

• It is practised in highly developed and
  industrial regions of North-West Europe, North-East United States and Mediterranean regions. Netherlands specialises in cultivation of Tulip flowers.
• This type of cultivation refers to high value crops like vegetables, fruits and flowers solely for urban markets. Farms are small and mechanised. It is both capital and labour intensive.

Truck Farming
This refers to the specialisation in the cultivation of vegetables only. The distance between the farms and urban markets can be covered through trucks overnight, hence its name is known as ‘truck farming.’

Factory Farming
This refers to livestock rearing mainly poultry and cattle. This is capital intensive, requires maintenance, supervisation and scientific breeding. It is practised in industrial regions of Europe and North America.

Co-operative Farming
Under this farming group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. There is help from societies in buying and selling farm products. Individual farms remain intact. It is practised in Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden and Italy.

Collected Farming

• It is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour. Here farmers pool their resources, though they are allowed to keep a small part with themselves.
• Produce is sold to state at prefixed prices. Members paid according to the nature of work done. It was practised first in Kelkhoz in erstwhile Soviet Union.

Mining
It refers to the extraction of mineral resources from the Earth. Its development began with the industrial revolution.

Factors affecting Mining Activity
There are two factors that affect the mining activity. These are:

1. Physical factors related to size, grade and mode of occurrence of the deposits.
2. Economic factors related to demand for mineral, technology, capital to develop infrastructure, labour and transport cost.

Methods of Mining
It is of two types i.e. surface and underground mining. Surface of open cast mining occurs close to the surface, it is easiest and cheapest. The other is underground mining in which minerals are extracted from very deep mines using vertical shafts. It requires lifts, drills and very efficient technology.
The developed economies are retreating from mining due to high labour cost while developing economies are becoming major exporters of minerals due to their large labour force and striving for better standard of living.

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Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 16 Water Resources is part of Geography Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 16 Water Resources.

Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 16 Water Resources

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
Mention any two sources of water pollutants created. (Delhi 2015)
OR
Mention any two sources of water pollution in India. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The two sources of water pollution in India are:

• Toxic effluents from industries.
• Sewage disposal

Question 2.
Define watershed management. (All India 2014)
Answer:
Watershed management means the proper management, use and saving of surface and groundwater resources. Prevention of surface runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater by different methods such as percolation tanks, recharge well, etc are done in the watershed.

Question 3.
Which is the main cause source of water-borne diseases in India? All India 2014,2009
Answer:
Water pollution is the main sources of water-borne diseases which are:

1. Diarrhoea
2. Intestinal Worms
3. Hepatitis

Question 4.
Name any two natural sources of water pollution. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
Two natural sources of water pollution are:

• Erosion
• Landslides

Question 5.
Which river basin of India has the highest percentage of replenishable utilisation of groundwater resources? (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Ganga river basin has the highest percentage of replenishable utilisation of groundwater resources.

Question 6.
Which sector (economic activity) uses most of the surface and groundwater in India? (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Agriculture sector uses most of the surface and groundwater in India.

Question 7.
Mention any two cultural activities responsible for water pollution in India. (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
Cultural activities are:

1. Pilgrimage
2. Religious fairs
3. Tourism

Question 8.
What is the main reason for the degradation of the quality of water in India? (Delhi 200a)
Answer:
The main reason for the degradation of the quality of water in India are:

• Domestic waste discharge indiscriminate use of water by increasing population.
• Industrial waste led to the degradation of the quality of water.

Question 9.
Which are the two polluted stretches of river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar? (All India 2008)
Answer:
The Ganga river is polluted in Uttar Pradesh from Kanpur to Varanasi and in Bihar from Varanasi to Patna.

3 Marks Questions

Question 10.
How has rainwater harvesting helped in the development of certain areas of India? Explain with examples. (All India 2015)
Answer:
Rainwater harvesting helped in the development of certain areas of India in the following ways:

• Rainwater harvesting is a cheap and environmentally friendly technique that guides to store rainwater into bore wells, pits, etc.
• It also recharges groundwater aquifers for different uses.
• It improves the quality of groundwater by dilution of pollutants like fluoride and nitrates.
• It prevents soil erosion and flooding conditions.
• It can be used to arrest saltwater intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

Question 11.
Examine the success of watershed management programme implemented in Jhabua District of Madhya Pradesh. (All Indio 2015)
Answer:
The people of Jhabua district are benefitted in the following ways from the implementation of Watershed Management Programmes:

• The drinking water is available.
• The water for irrigation is available.
• It also enhanced afforestation in the area.

Question 12.
“The assessment, efficient use and conservation of water are necessary to ensure development.”
Explain in the light of values regarding the conservation of water resources. (Delhi 2015)
OR
Why is the conservation of water resources necessary? Explain any three reasons. (All Indio 2011)
Answer:
There is a need to conserve water resources due to the following reasons:
Low Availability of Fresh Water
In India fresh water is not available to meet the demand of a large number of population. Increasing population is also shrinking the per capita availability of water. To guarantee the adequate supply of fresh water, we need to create awareness among people for conservation of water resources.

To Irrigate Crops
India is an agrarian economy. Most of its population is depended on agriculture. Water is required to irrigate crops and ensure the employment of agrarian workers and the development of the economy.

For Sustainable Development
Water is a life-giving precious resource if we do not save and conserve it, development cannot be possible.

So, to ensure sustainable development we need to be such a citizen who is responsible to sensitize people with positive cooperation about the necessity of water conservation.

Question 13.
How do industries pollute India’s water bodies? Explain with examples. (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
Watershed Development and Management Programme initiated by the central and state government in India are:

1. Haryali is a Watershed Development Project sponsored by the central government. It aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation fisheries and afforestation. The project is being excused by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation.
2. Neru-Meeru programme has been Launched by the Andhra Pradesh Government.
3. Arvary Pani Sansad has established in Alwar, Rajasthan.
4. Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structure in the house compulsory.
5. Watershed Development Project in some areas has been successful in rejuvenating environment and economy.

Question 14.
Analyse the economic and social values of rainwater harvesting. (HOTS; Delhi 2014)
Answer:
The economic and social values of rainwater harvesting are given below:

• Rainwater harvesting technique is environment-friendly as well as cost-effective for people.
• This technique guides to store rainwater into bore wells, pits, etc for future use and in times of scarcity of water.
• It creates sensitivity and awareness among people about the benefits of conservation and reuse of water.
• This technique helps to reduce floods like situation and also save life and property.
• It help’s to reduce conflict among states and communities.

Question 15.
Examine any three causes for the deterioration of ‘quality of water’ in India. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
Water quality means water free from unwanted foreign substances or purity of water.
The three causes responsible for the deterioration of the quality of water in India are as follows:

1. The foreign substances like micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and other wastes make water polluted. Because of these substances, quality of water decreases and it becomes unsuitable for the uses of human beings.
2. Toxic substances are responsible for water pollution by dissolving or suspending in lakes, streams, rivers, ocean or other water source. It declines the quality of water and harms aquatic life and systems.
3. When toxic substances seep down, they pollute groundwater.

Question 16.
Explain watershed management. What is its aim? (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
Watershed management means the proper management, use and saving of surface and groundwater resources. Prevention of surface runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater by different methods such as percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc are done in the watershed management.

But in the broader terms, the conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all natural resources (land, water, plants and animals) and human resources in a watershed also included in water management.

Major aims of watershed management are as follows:

• To create a balance among natural elements as well as in society.
• To enable the villagers to conserve water for various uses such as drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.

Question 17.
Describe any three key features of India’s National Water Policy, 2002. (All India 2012)
Answer:
The National water policy, 2002 explains water allocation priorities basically in the following order i.e. drinking water irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses.

The three features of India’s National Water Policy, 2002 are:

1. When there is no source of drinking water, irrigation and multi-purpose projects or dams should invariably include drinking water component.
2. Provide potable water for human being and animals.
3. Exploitation of ground water should be stopped and limited by adopting suitalble measures.

Question 18.
Describe any three major problems related to water in India. (Delhi 2011)
OR
Explain any three major problems related to water in India. (All indin 2008)
Answer:
The three major problems related to water in India are as follows:
Low Availability of Fresh Water
In India, fresh water is not available to meet the demand. Increasing population is also shrinking the per capita availability of water.

Water Pollution
It is increased rapidly after independence in India. Industrialisation and urbanisation has more contribution in water pollution in India.

Uneven Distribution of Water Resources
Water resources in India are very unevenly distributed. Some regions are facing scarcity of water whereas other areas are facing floods.

Question 19.
Why is demand of water for irrigation increasing day by day in India? Explain any three reasons. (HOTS; Delhi 2011)
Answer:
The demand of water for irrigation is
increasing day by day in India because of the following reasons:

1. Need for irrigation is very high in India due to the spatial and temporal variation in South-West Monsoon in India. Regions like North-Western India, Deccan plateau and others are drought prone areas and receives very low rainfall in India.
2. The variation of rainfall in different season as winter and summer season are more or less dry in most parts of India. Agriculture can not be practised without irrigation during dry season in these parts of India.
3. Some crops like sugarcane, jute, rice, etc are water intensive and require more water to grow. Cultivation of these crops are not possible without irrigation in this condition.

5 Marks Question

Question 20.
Explain any three factors responsible for the depletion of water resources. Examine any two legislative measures for controlling water pollution in India. (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The three factors responsible for the depletion of water resources in India are as follow:
Increasing Population Population in India is increasing with a higher growth rate. This growth is responsible for decreasing the availability of fresh water and per capita availability of water.

Industrialisation It has increased many folds after independence. It created a major problem of water pollution in India as industrial wastes are disposed in water sources.

Over Utilllsation of Ground water India is an agrarian country. Thus, water is required in high amount for irrigation in agriculture.

In the irrigated areas, groundwater is used to obtain maximum agriculture output. Over utilisation of groundwater in these areas has led to the declining of groundwater level. Government has taken some steps to reduce river and water pollution, but some were not effective and some were not implemented successfully. Two legislative provision are as follows:

1. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act of 1974.
2. Environment Protection Act (1986). These acts were unsuccessful as in 1997, 251 polluting factories were established along the rivers and lakes. The Water Cess Act of 1977 was also ineffective. The main reason was that they were unsuccessful in creating awareness about water conservation among people. Generation of awareness in public about the importance of water in life and impacts of water pollution is necessary.

Value Based Questions

Question 21.
“The assessment, efficient use and conservation of water are necessary to ensure development”. Identify the values enshrined in the statement.
Answer:
Following values can be derived from the statement:

1. Sustainable development
2. Social awareness
3. Environmental conservation

Question 22.
The fast growth of population and the demand of water is increasing, alongwith its pollution and its overutilisation are creating major problem of water scarcity. Give the values which lead to water scarcity.
Answer:
Following values lead to water scarcity:

1. Environmental degradation
2. Social pressure
3. Over utilisation of resources.

We hope the Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 16 Water Resources help you. If you have any query regarding Geography Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 16 Water Resources, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 6 Secondary Activities is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Secondary Activities.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 6 Secondary Activities

Manufacturing
The literally meaning of manufacturing is to make by hand, but in the present context, the manufacturing means the conversion of raw material into more useful and valuable fabricated articles with the help of machines.

Manufacturing Industries
These are geographically located manufacturing units that transform raw materials into finished goods of higher value for sale in local or distant markets. The term industry is comprehensive and can also be used in many secondary activities which are not carried on in factories like entertainment industry, tourism industry, etc.
The manufacturing industries are characterised by the following:

• Specialisation of Skills In industries, one task is done repeatedly that gives specialisation of doing that task. This involves high cost of manufacturing. On the other hand, mass production involves production of large quantity of standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.
• Mechanisation The industries use automated processes or machines which does the major production. Human thinking is not required in mechanisation.
• Technological Innovation Latest technology is used and constant innovation is done to eliminate waste, quality control, combat pollution and bring efficiency.
• Organisational Structure and Stratification Modern manufacturing is characterised by complex machine technology, extreme specialisation, division of labour, vast capital, large organisations and executive bureaucracy.
• Uneven Geographic Distribution The industries are concentrated in regions that are rich in mineral and other resources. These areas cover less than 10% of the world’s land area. These regions have become the major centres of economic and political power.

Location of industry
The location of industry at a particular place is governed by a large number of geographical and non-geographical factors. Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Thus, industries should be located at points where the production costs are minimum. Following factors influence the location of industry at particular places:

• Access to Market Areas that provide large markets for finished industrial goods like developed areas of Europe, America, Japan, Australia, South Asia have huge concentration of industries.
• Access to Sources of Energy Coal, petroleum and hydroelectricity are main sources of energy. Industries using more power are located close to these sources.
• Access to Raw Material Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing materials (ores) like steel, sugar are based close to sources of raw materials. Similarly, processing of dairy products, perishable foods and agro based are done near the sources of raw materials.
• Access to Labour Supply Industries are located where there is availability of skilled labour. Some types of manufacturing still require skilled labour.
• Acccess to Source of Energy Industries which use more power are located nearer to the source of energy supply such as iron and steel industries. Energy is most essential to run machines in industries. The main power resources are coal, petroleum, hydroelectricity, natural gas and nuclear energy.
• Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities Industries are located in places that have efficient transportation facilities and communication services for the exchange and management of information.
• Access to Agglomeration Economies Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits derived from the linkages that exist between different industries. The small industries or ancillary units like to operate near leader industries to benefit from nearness to big or basic industries.
• Government Policy For the balanced economic development, governments promote various regions by setting up industries in a particular link between industrial areas.

Classification of Manufacturing Industries
Industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/ raw materials, output/ products and ownership.

Industries Based on Size
Based on amount of capital invested, a number of workers employed and volume of production, industries are classified into the following:

Household Industries or Cottage Manufacturing It is the smallest manufacturing unit. Artisans use local raw materials, simple tools and production is done with the help of family members. Production is done for local consumption and local markets. There is not much capital needed, e.g. mats, baskets, pottery, jewellery, artefacts and crafts.

Small Scale Manufacturing These type of industries employ semi-skilled labour, operate by power driven machines, use local raw materials and manufacture products in workshops. It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. India, China, Indonesia and Brazil have developed labour intensive small scale manufacturing units.

Large Scale Manufacturing Here mass production takes place, involves large market, many raw materials, huge energy requirements, specialised workers, advanced technology and large capital. Large scale manufacturing industries are divided into two parts i.e. Traditional large scale industrial regions and Higlr technology large scale industrial regions.

Industries Based on Inputs/Raw Materials
On the basis of raw materials used, industries are classified as follow:

• Agro based Industry This involves processing of raw materials from the fields and farms into finished products like sugar, fruit juices, beverages, oils and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
• Food Processing This is part of agro based industry and includes processes like canning, producing cream, fruit processing, confectionery, drying, fermenting and pickling.
• Agri Business This is commercial farming on an industrial scale. The farms are mechanised, very large and highly structured, like tea plantation and tea factories near the plantations.
• Mineral based Industry These are industries that use minerals as raw materials such as ferrous like iron and steel and non-ferrous like aluminium, copper, etc. Mineral based non-metallic industries are of cement and pottery.
• Chemical based Industry These industries use natural chemical minerals like salts, sulphur, potash, mineral oil in petrochemical industry and chemicals obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fiber and plastics are other examples of chemical based industry.
• Forest based Industry Industries that use forest products such as timber, wood, bamboo, grass, lac, etc come under forest based industry.
• Animal based Industry Industries that use animal products such as leather, woollen textiles, ivory are grouped under animal based industry.

Industries based on Output/ Product
This refers to industries based on the finished products or output. These are:

1. Basic Industries These are the industries that produce raw material to be used in other industries such as iron and steel.
2. Consumer Goods Industries These are the industries which produces what is consumed by consumers directly such as tea, biscuits, toiletries, etc.

Industries based on Ownership
Based on the ownership, the industries are grouped as:

• Public Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned and managed by government. In India, it is called public sector undertakings. Socialist economies have all state owned industries.
• Private Sector Industry This refers to industries that are owned by private individuals and also managed by them. Capitalist economies have mostly private owned industries.
• Joint Sector Industry Industries that are jointly owned and managed by joint stock companies or established by private and government sector are called joint sector industries.

Foot Loose Industries
These industries do not depend on any specific raw material so they can be located at any place. They largely depend on component parts, employ small labour force and produce in small quantity.

Traditional Large Scale Industrial Regions
Traditional large scale industries are mostly heavy industries located near coal fields and involved in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacturing or textile production. Their features are high employment, high density of housing but poor services, unattractive environment, pollution and waste heaps. Due to these problems, many industries are closed leading to unemployment, emigration and wastelands.

The Ruhr Coal Field, Germany

• This area was a major industrial region due to coal and iron-ore deposits. But the industry started shrinking as demand of coal declined, iron-ore exhausted, industrial waste and pollution increased.
• Now a New Ruhr landscape has emerged that focusses on other products like Opel car assembly plant, new chemical plants, universities and out of town shopping centres.

High Technology Industry

• Also called high-tech industry, it is highly technical and incorporates advanced scientific and engineering research and development strategy.
• The workforce are highly skilled specialists, professionals (known as white collar) who outnumber the production labour (blue collar).
• Robotics, computer aided design and manufacturing, electronics, new chemicals and pharmaceuticals are examples of these industries.

Iron and Steel Industry

• It is known as basic industry as it provides raw materials or base to other industries. It is also called heavy industry due to its bulky raw material and heavy finished products.
• These industries are located near the source of raw materials i.e. iron ore, coal, manganese and limestone or near ports where it could be early brought.

Distribution
This industry is spread in developed and developing countries such as America, UK, Germany, France, Belgium, Ukraine, Japan, China and India (Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Raurkela, etc.)

Cotton Textile Industry
This industry has three sub-sectors:

1. Handloom This is labour intensive, employs semi-skilled workers, requires small capital and involves processes like spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.
2. Powerloom This is less labour intensive, uses of machines and production is more.
3. Mill Sector This is highly capital intensive, requires good quality raw cotton and produces in bulk.
   India, China, USA, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Egypt produce more than half of world’s raw cotton. Now the cotton textile industry is shifting to less developed countries due to labour cost.

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What is Government Class 6 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 3 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 6 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given What is Government Class 6 Civics Chapter 3 Notes.

What is Government Class 6 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 3

Government: Government is “the organisation, that is the governing authority of a political unit”, “the ruling power in political society” and the apparatus through which a governing body functions and exercises authority”.

Levels of Government: India is a representative democracy where people are eligible ‘to vote, elect representatives and participate in the decisions making the process. The government works at different levels: national, state and local level.

National Level: It refers to the area of the government which is concerned with national issues such as taxation, defence, international relations and trade.

State Level: Each of the State Governments has its own police force, education system and road laws.

Local Level: The local governments are known as Panchayats in rural areas and Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.

Laws and the Government: A rule of conduct established and enforced by the authority, legislation or custom of a given community, state or nation is called law. It is both the responsibility of the government and citizens to uphold the integrity of laws.

Types of Government: Governments can be classified into several types. Some of the most common types of governments are a democracy, monarchy, etc.

Democracy: It is a form of government run by elected representatives who hold the decision making power. The word ‘democracy’ originates from the Greek words ‘demos’ and ‘krotos’, meaning “rule of the people.” It can be classified into direct and indirect democracy.

Monarchy: A monarchy refers to the rule by a king or queen. Sometimes, a king is called an “emperor”. It is a government with a hereditary head of the state. It can be classified into two types, i.e., absolute and constitutional monarchy.

Representative Democracy: The type of democracy in which the citizens delegate authority to their elected representatives.

Women’s Suffrage: A Movement started in the early 20th century vigorously for many years, demanding equality with men and the right to vote.

Franchise: A privilege or right officially granted to a person or a group by a government, especially the constitutional or statutory right to vote.

Each country needs a government to make important decisions and function well. The decisions may be economic, educational or social.

The government also takes care of international boundaries and relations with other countries. It is responsible for the transport facilities and health facilities for citizens.

The government works at different levels—like, local level, state level, national level.

The government makes laws and every citizen is supposed to follow them. Laws need to be enforced for proper function of the government.

Citizens can also take the help of law if they are dissatisfied with something.

There are some types of government, like the democratic, monarch, etc. In a democracy (like India), the people elect the government themselves by voting in the election. In a monarchy, the king/queen has the power to make decisions and no one from the citizens can* object to them.

The basic idea of democracy is that people rule themselves by taking part in the law-making.

Nowadays, democratic governments are better known as ‘representative democracies’. People do not participate directly. They choose their representatives during elections and these representatives come together for the decision-making process. All adults in the country are eligible to vote according to the universal adult franchise.

There are instances in history when governments did not allow women, the poor people and the uneducated to vote. But when India got independence, the universal adult franchise was enforced.

Government: The system or machinery present in each country in order to make decisions for the proper running of the country is called government.

Laws: The rules laid down by the government for the proper functioning of the country are called laws.

Democracy: A system of government in which the people (citizens) of the country choose their leaders to rule is called democracy. The elected government is answerable to its people for its decisions.

Monarchy: A system of government which is run by a king/queen on a hereditary basis and where people do not get their say in decision-making is called a monarchy. The king/queen is said to be the monarch.

Elections: The process in which citizens of a democratic country cast their votes for the leaders of their choice is called the election. The elected leaders form a government later.

Representative Democracy: A form of democracy in which people do not elect the government directly but only choose their representative, who collectively form a government is called representative democracy. Most democracies are representative in nature.

Universal Adult Franchise: The rule that allows all adults in the country, irrespective of caste, creed, gender, literacy, occupation, etc., to vote and take part in the elections, is the universal adult franchise.

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements

Rural Settlements
They are mainly smaller in size and poorly spaced. The people of these settlements are mainly engaged in primary activities like, agriculture, fishing, mining, etc, e.g. people surviving in hamlets and villages.

Factors Determining the Rural Settlements
There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in India. These are:

• Physical Features These include nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water.
• Cultural and Ethnic Factors These include social structure, caste and religion.
• Security Factors These include defence against thefts and robberies.

Types of Rural Settlements
Types of the rural settlements are determined by the above determinants as well as by the extent of the built up area and inter-house distance. In India, Rural settlements can broadly divided into four types:

• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated
• Semi-dustered or fragmented
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated

Clustered Settlements

• The houses in this settlement are closely spaced or have no space between houses.
• The living place is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, bams and pastures.
• The settlement sometimes present distinct patterns or geometrical shapes like rectangular, radial, linear, etc which are recognisable in fertile alluvial plains and North-Eastern states.
• This type of settlement is built due to various reasons, e.g. in Bundelkhand and Nagaland, people live in these settlements for defence and security purposes, in Rajasthan these settlements are built around/ near water resources due to water scarcity.

Semi-Clustered Settlements

• This type of settlement develops by the concentration of houses in a restricted area of a dispersed settlement or develop due to segregation or fragmentation of a large compact village.
• Here, a dominant community captures the most important part in main village and force other communities to live away. For e.g. plains of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Hamleted Settlement

• This type of settlement is formed due to social or ethnic factors and thus known for different identity and name, like, panna, para, nagla, dhani etc.
• Each hamlet is a unit and has a number of houses.
• Several units of hamlets collectively form a village. For e.g. middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of Himalayas.

Dispersed Settlements

• Isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in remote jungles or on small hills with farms or pastures are characteristics of dispersed type of settlement.
• These houses may be of temporary use. It is found in Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, etc.

Urban Settlements

• Unlike rural settlement, urban settlement are
  usually more dense, compact and larger in size.
• Here, people are mostly engaged in non-agricultural activities i.e. industries, services, administrative functions, etc.
• Cities and towns both are connected directly or indirectly with villages and also with each other and exchange goods, services and also commute.

Evolution of Towns in India
The evolution of towns started in India from prehistoric times, e.g. Harappa, Mohenjodaro towns, European colonies of modern period, etc.
Indian towns may be classified into three groups on the basis of their evolution in different periods:

Ancient Towns
These towns were developed over 2000 years ago by the various kings as religious and cultural centres, e.g. Varanasi, Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai, etc.

Medieval Towns

• These towns were developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms by medieval kings and Sultans of India.
• These towns are about 100 in numbers and were generally fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns.
• For example, Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur.

Modern Towns
These towns were developed by the Britishers and other Europeans in India. These are further divided into the following groups:

• Port Towns These are located on the coastal areas of India i.e. Surat, Daman, Goa, Puducherry, etc.
• Administrative Towns These were developed for the administrative purposes, e.g. Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras) and Kolkata (Calcutta).
• Industrial Towns After 1850, these towns were developed like Jamshedpur.
• Some other Towns of European Styles These towns include hill stations for summer resorts, military towns and small towns for administrative purposes.

Towns after Independence
After Independence, some towns were also developed like:

• Administrative Headquarters or Capital of States These towns include Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar, Gandhinagar and Dispur etc.
• Industrial Towns/Centres These towns include Durgapur Bhilai, Sindri, Barani, etc.
• Satellite Towns These were old towns which developed around metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurgaon (Gurugram), etc.
• Medium and Small towns These are developed due to increasing investment in rural areas.

Urbanisation in India

• Urbanisation is the transition of rural population into urban population.
• It is measured by the percentage of urban population into total population. In India, the level of urbanisation is very low, as it was just 28% in 2001.
• Developed countries have a higher level of urbanisation than India.
• Although, urbanisation in India is increasing with high rate, as it increased 11 times dining twentieth century, but this process is comparatively slow during recent two decades.

Classification of Towns on the Basis of Population Size
Census of India is responsible for defining and classifying urban areas in India. Cities and urban areas are classified into six classes by census of India.
Urban areas use their population size as base. Thus, an urban Area that have population of more than one lakh is considered as city or class I town.

Cities that have population more than one million but less than 5 million are considered as metropolitan or metro city. Cities that have population more than 5 million are considered as ‘megacities’ or ‘megalopolis’.
The six classes of towns are given below

Apart from these cities, there is also a concept of urban agglomeration in India. According to census of India, an urban agglomeration may have to fulfil anyone of the following conditions:

1. A town and its adjoining urban out growths.
2. Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths.
3. A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread.

Examples of these outgrowth may be in the form of railway colonies, university campus, part area, military cantonment, etc.
According to the given table, class IV cities are highest in number but larger proportion of urban population lives in class I cities (61.48%).
Besides these towns, India has 423 cities. Among them, 35 cities or urban agglomeration are metropolitan cities. Six of them are mega cities with population over 5 million each.
For e.g.. Greater Mumbai being the largest urban agglomeration with 16.4 million population, followed by Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad.

Functional Classification of Towns
Apart from population size, Indian towns and cities can be classified into the following heads on the basis of their functions (dominant economic activity):

• Administrative towns and cities These towns work as headquarter for surrounding region.
  Government offices and departments, etc are mainly concentrated in these cities. For e.g. Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shilong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur and Chennai, etc.
• Industrial Towns These towns/ cities mainly dominated by industries. For e.g. Jamshedpur, Bhilai, Durgapur, Madurai, Mumbai, etc.
• Transport Cities Transportation is the main function of these cities. Port towns are examples of these towns that are always busy in transporting commodities to other cities. For e.g. Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Visakhapatnam, etc. There are some cities which are hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
• Commercial Towns The important functions of these towns are trade and commerce. For e.g. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc.
• Mining Towns These towns have developed in mineral rich areas. For e.g. Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
• Garrison Cantonment Towns These towns are meant for the army or defence purpose. For e.g. Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.
• Educational Towns Initially these towns were important education centres, but later they emerged as major campus towns. For e.g. Roorkee, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad, etc.
• Religious and Cultural Towns These towns are famous for pilgrimage, religious worship or old cultures. For e.g. Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Pune, Ajmer, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain, etc.
• Tourists Towns These towns are famous for attracting wide range of tourists from India and all over the world. For e.g.
  Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu, etc.

The functions of these cities are not fix and change with the time as cities are dynamic in nature. With increase in population, cities become metropolis and multi-functional i.e. industry, business, administration, transport, etc. Thus, classification of these cities on the basis of specialised function is impossible as all the functions are interlinked.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 14 Human Settlements, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture

Land use Categories
Land revenue department is responsible for categorising land and maintaining its records. These records contains reporting area.
Under the land revenue records land use categories are as follows:

1. Forest
2. Land put to non-agricultural uses.
3. Barren and Wastelands.
4. Area under permanent pastures and grazing lands.
5. Area under miscellaneous tree crops and groves.
6. Culturable wastelands
7. Current fallow
8. Net sown area

Land use Changes in India
Unlike other natural resources, land is fixed, it does not change by size or area. Economic activities are the major causes that affect land use. The three main economic changes that changes the land use are:

1. The size of the economy.
2. The composition of an economy (proportion of different sectors).
3. Increasing pressure on agricultural lands.

During the period of 1960-61 to 2008-09 some land use changes are worth mentioning which show an increase and decrease in these categories:

Area Records Increase in Land use

• Area under forest.
• Current fallow lands.
• Area under non-agricultural use.
• Net sown area.

Area Records Decrease in Land use

• Barren and wasteland.
• Culturable wasteland
• Area under permanent pastures and tree crops.
• Fallow other than current fallow.

On the basis of ownership land can be classified into two categories:
Private land Owned by individual or group of individuals.
Common Property Resources (CPRs) Available for all and can be used by any person. It provides fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households. In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance for livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers.

Agricultural Land Use in India
Most of the Indians are dependent on agriculture, directly or indirectly for their subsistence. Agriculture is mainly Land-based activity unlike secondary and tertiary sectors. The role of quality of land is important in agriculture. The more the land is fertile the more it gives output/production. Ownership of land resource is considered as a social status in rural areas. It is also seen as security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies. Availability of total resources for agricultural uses is calculated by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wastelands.

Cropping Intensity (Cl)’is calculated as follows:
Cropping Intensity in percentage = GCA (Gross Cropped Area)/NSA (Net Sown Area) x 100

Cropping seasons in India

Types of Farming
In India farming is classified on the basis of moisture available for crops:

• Irrigated Farming The main source of moisture for this farming is irrigation by various methods i.e. wells, tubewells, etc. Two types are protective and
  productive farming.
• Rainfed Farming (Barani) The main source of moisture for this farming is rainfall. Two types are dryland farming and wetland farming.

Dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions grows hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and gaur. On the other hand in wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugercane.

Cropping Pattern

Food grains
Foodgrains are important for agriculture economy which constitute about two-third of total cropped area in the country. The foodgrains are classified on the basis of structure of grains:

Cereals
India ranks 3rd in the production of cereals after China and USA. India produces 11% of the world and covers about 54% of the total cropped area in India. These cereals are:

• Rice It is the most important food crop of India which feeds more than half of our population. India ranked second with the production nearly 22% after China in the world. States like West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh were major rice producing states in India. In North-Western and in. Himalyas regions, it is grown as a Kharif crop, whereas in West Bengal, farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.
• Wheat India share 12% of total wheat production of the world. It is cultivated on about 14% of the total cropped area. About 85% of this area comes under the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas in North and central parts of the country. The major wheat producing states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir.

Coarse Grains
These crops are grown in almost 16.50% of total cropped area in the country. These coarse grains are:

• Jowar/Sorghum It is grown in about 5.3% of total cropped area. Maharashtra is the largest producer of Jowar in India. The major producer of Jowar are central and Southern states i.e. Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
• Bajra It is grown in about 5.2% of the total cropped area in the country. The major producers of bajra are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana.
• Maize It is grown in about 3.6% of total cropped area in the country. There is no particular region under maize. It is sown all over India except Eastern and North Eastern regions. The leading producers are Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
• Pulses Pulses are grown in India on about 11% of the total cropped area. India is one of the largest producers of pulses, as it cultivates about 20% pulses of the world. Pulses are legume crops. These are largely confined to the drylands of Deccan and Central plateaus and North-Western parts of the country.
• Gram It is grown in 2.8% of the total cropped area. The major producers are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• Tur (Arhar) This is grown in 2% of the total cropped area of India. It is the second important pulse crop in the country. Maharashtra is the leading producer of tur which produces about 75% of tur in India. It is also called as red gram or pigeon pea.
• Oil seeds Oil seeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Oil seeds include groundnut, (3.6%), rapeseed and mustard (2.5%), soybean, sunflower, etc. These different oilseeds are grown in India about 14% of total cropped area in the country.
  Drylands of Malwa Plateau, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are leading producers of oilseeds. Soybean and sunflower are other important oil seeds grown in India.

Fibre Crops
Fibre crops are one which provides fibre for preparing cloth. These includes:

• Cotton India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton. India produces about 8.3% of the world’s cotton. This makes India the fourth largest producer of cotton after China, USA and Pakistan. Largest producers of cotton in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
• Jute India accounts for about 60% of the world’s jute production. West Bengal (75%) is the largest producer of jute in the country. Other producers are Bihar and Assam.

Other Crops

• Sugarcane It is an important cash crop in India. India’s sugarcane production is about 23% of the world’s total production, which makes India the 2nd largest producer after Brazil. Major producers are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Uttar Pradesh accounts 40 percent of sugarcane production and secures a position of the largest producer of India.
• Tea Assam (53.2%) is the largest producer of tea in India. Other states are West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
• Coffee India is the 7th largest producer of coffee in the world which accounts about 3.2% share. Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee that produces more than 66% of India’s total coffee.

Agricultural Development in India

• About 54.6% of population is engaged in agricultural activity. According to census (2011) and about 57% of its land is used for cultivation of various crops in India whereas world average is only about 12%.
• The land-human ratio in India is only 0.31 hectare whereas, the world is almost double of this figure i.e. 0.59 hectare.

Strategy of Development
Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature, this period was frequently  witnessed severe droughts, famines and food shortage. About l/3rd of the irrigated area went to Pakistan. Consequently, Government took several steps to increase the production of food grains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve this goal:

1. Switching over from cash crops to food crops.
2. Intensification of cropping over already cultivated land.
3. Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.

However, Indian agriculture could not progress much, then Government introduced modem technology into agriculture. These were:

• High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds
• Fertilisers
• Mechanisation
• Improved irrigation and credit marketing facilities.
• Intensive Area Development Programme

All the above inputs were the main components of what is known as Green Revolution. This strategy of agricultural development in the country made the country self-reliant in foodgrain production. But, green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. This led to regional disparities in agricultural development in the country till the seventies. Consequently, Planning Commission prepared plans to solve the problems of agriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. It initiated agro-climate planning in 1988 to induce regional balance.

Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology

• Since independence, there has been improvement in technologies used for agricultural production. As a result, increase in agricultural production has been recorded.
• India is now became 1st largest producer of pulses and jute and 2nd largest in rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables.
• New technologies also came up to increase the production of food grains, for e.g. HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers raised 15 folds since mid 1960s.

Problems of Indian Agriculture
These problems are:

• Dependence on Erratic Monsoon There is only 33% cultivated area is under irrigation. The nature of South-West monsoon is very fluctuating which causes flood and drought situation in India.
• Low Productivity India also lag behind in terms of per hectare production and per person production and also behind at International level. This low productivity is a result of high population which creates a heavy pressure on available land resources.
• Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness Lack of money and financial resources are the major constraints to the development of agriculture in India. As majority of farmers are small, marginal and poor, they cannot afford highly expensive inputs to increase their production.
• Lack of Land Reforms Lack of land reforms and unequal distribution of land resources led to the worst condition of poor and marginal farmers and also become constraint in the development of agriculture in India.
• Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings ‘Inheritance law’ is mainly responsible for small and fragmented farm size.
• Lack of Commercialisation As most of the farmers are poor and marginal, farmers practice subsistence agriculture for their living.
• Vast Under-employment There is seasonal unemployment in agricultural sector. There is no income during ploughing field to harvesting crops.
• Degradation of Cultivable Land After green revolution degradation has started in India. Excessive use of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, etc created problems of water lodging and solemnization. Fertility of land is also decreasing day by day.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 15 Land Resources and Agriculture, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 16 Water Resources.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources

Water Resources of India

• India contributes about 2.45% world’s geographical area, the 4% of the world’s water resources and about 16% of world population.
• India receives water from annual precipitation i.e. 4000 cubic km, and surface and groundwater sources i.e. 1869 cubic km. But only 60% (1122 cubic km) from these two sources of water are beneficial and usable.

Surface Water Resources

• River, lakes, ponds and tanks are four main sources of surface water resources in India.
• About 10,360 number of river and tributaries existed here and each tributary is more than 1.6 km long.
• The mean annual flow in all the river basin in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. But only about 690 cubic km or 32% of these water can be utilised due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints.
• Size of catchment area/river basin and rainfall in its catchment area control the flow of water in a river. Water availability in rivers is more during monsoon than other seasons in India.
• In India, Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus have large catchment area. Catchment areas of Ganga and Brahmaputra and Barak rivers fall into the high rainfall receiving area thus, have 60% of total water resources and have only 33% of the surface areas in India, but most of the water is not utilised.
• On the other hand, in the Peninsular rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc mean annual flow of water is less, but much of their water resources has been utilised.

Groundwater Resources

• There is about 432 cubic km of total replenishable ground water resources available in India. Ganga and Brahmaputra basins have about 46% of the total replenishable groundwater resources.
• The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins of North¬Western parts and Southern parts of India.
• States having very high utilisation of groundwater are Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
• States having moderate utilisation ground water are Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtsa.
• States having low Utilisation of groundwater are Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc.
• It is assumed that if the utilisation of water continue with the present rate, there are chances that it will limit the development and create a situation of social upheaval disruptions.

Lagoons and Backwaters

• Some states of India have indented coastline and thus a number of lagoons and lakes have formed. Examples of such states are Kerala, Odisha, and West Bengal.
• Due to brackish water-bodies, these water resources are used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.

Water Demand and Utilisation

• Agriculture, being an important part of Indian economy, alone uses about 89% of surface water and 92% of groundwater.
• Most of the developmental projects, river valley projects like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakund, Damodar Valley, Nagaijuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal project, etc as well as five year plans were started to provide water to agricultural sector and increase agricultural production.
• Besides this, utilisation of surface and groundwater for domestic purposes are 90% and 3% and for industrial sector are 2% and 5%, respectively.

Demand of Water for Irrigation

• Need for irrigation is very high in India due to the spatial and temporal variation of rainfall.
• As winter and summer season are more or less dry in most parts of India. So, without irrigation agriculture cannot be practised in these parts.
• Some crops like rice, sugarcane, jute and other are water intensive and require more water to grow.
• Irrigation helps to grow multiple crops, gives more agricultural productivity, and along with HYV seeds gives more yield at fast rate. For e.g. Punjab Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh which have more than 85% of net source area under irrigation.
• Total net irrigated area in Punjab under wells and tube wells is 76.1% where as it is 51.3% in Haryana. These states utilise a large share of their groundwater resources and thus, it is the major cause behind the depletion of these resources.
• Besides these in Rajasthan and Bihar, the concentration of flouride in groundwater is also increasing due to over withdrawal of this resource. Whereas in West Bengal and Bihar, the concentration of arsenic has been increased because of the same reason.

Emerging Water Problems

• Rapid growth in population and pollution from various sources like industries, agriculture, and domestic sources are the major problems which are responsible for declining the availability of potable water.
• The per capita availability of water in India is also decreasing day by day.

Deterioration of Water Quality

• Water quality means water free from unwanted foreign substances that make water polluted i.e. micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and other wastes.
• These toxic substances are responsible for water pollution by dissolving or he suspended in lakes, streams, rivers and oceans.
• Sometimes, such pollutants seep down and pollute groundwater. The most polluted rivers in India are Ganga and Yamuna.

Water Conservation and Management

• The conservation and management of water become necessary after decreasing the availability of fresh water and increasing its demand by increasing population.
• For Sustainable development and maintaining the quality of life the government should encourage people to adopt watershed development, rainwater harvesting, recycling and reuse of water, conjunctive use of water for availability of quality water for long time.

Prevention of Water Pollution

• Availability of water resources are shrinking with a faster rate. It is seen that hilly areas have less dense population and thus, have high quality of water in their rivers. Whereas plains have dense population and thus have low quality of water in their rivers, and here water is widely used for irrigation, domestic works and industrial works.
• Plains also contribute more in polluting water sources by draining agricultural wastes (chemical fertilisers and insecticides) solid and domestic wastes and industrial wastes.
• During summer, concentration of pollutants in rivers remains high because of low amount of water which unable to flow these pollutants.
• Water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations have been monitored by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), with the collaboration of State Pollution Control Boards.
• The analysis of data recorded from these stations shows that the major rivers of India are most polluted by the organic and bacterial pollution.
• Yamuna river is most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah. Other severely polluted rivers are the Sabarmati at Allahabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum (at entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai, Musi at Hyderabad and the Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
• Ground water is also polluted because of high concentration of heavy toxic metals, flouride nitrates at different parts of the country.

Legislative Provisions and Laws to Prevent River Pollution

• Government has taken various steps to minimise river and water pollution but due to some obstacles, these were proved to be less effective, for e.g. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974, and Environment Protection Act of 1986 were unsuccessful as in 1997, 251 polluting factories were established along the rivers and lakes.
• The Water Cess Act of 1977 which was made to prevent pollution, was also less effective. So there is an urgent need to create awareness in public about the importance of water in life. It will result in reducing the pollutants from agricultural activities and industrial discharge.

Recycle and Reuse of Water

• Recycle and reuse is a simple and best way to conserve fresh water and make it available for all.
• Industries can use water of low quality and their waste water for cooling and fire fighting, which can decrease the cost of water for them and conserve fresh water.
• Water could be collected after bathing and washing utensils, washing clothes and cars can be a better option for gardening.
• Today, reusing and recycling of water is limited to few people but there is enormous scope for replenishing water through recycling.

Watershed Management
Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface water.
Watershed management includes:

1. ground water resources.
2. prevention of surface runoff.
3. storage and recharge of ground-water by different methods such as percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.
4. the conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all natural resources (land, water, plants and animals) and human resources.
5. create a balance among natural elements as well as in society.
6. community participation is a key to success of a Watershed Development programme.

There are various Watershed Development and management programmes started by both Central and State Government at national and state level in India like:

• Haryali It is sponsered by the central government while gram panchayats of different villages execute it with the public participation. This programme enabled people to conserve water for various uses such as drinking,, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
• Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) Programme in Andhra Pradesh and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan)are examples of state initiated watershed development programmes.

Under these two programmes numerous percolation tanks, dug out ponds (johad), check dams, etc were constructed for harvesting water with the help of public participation. Tamil Nadu is only state which has made the construction of water harvesting structures compulsory in the houses.

The construction of a building without the structure of water harvesting is not allowed. Despite having such programmes, still most of the people in India are not aware with the benefits of watershed development and managment of water. Thus, there is a need to encourage more people to participate in this programme.

Rain Water Harvesting
Rain water harvesting is a cheap and environmental friendly technique that guides us to store rainwater into bore wells, pits and also recharge groundwater aquifers for different uses. There are various benefits of rainwater harvesting which are as follows:

1. It increases.water availability.
2. Checks the declining groundwater level.
3. It improves the quality of groundwater by dilution of pollutions like fluoride and nitrates.
4. It prevents soil erosion and flooding.
5. It can be used to arrest salt water intrusion in coastal areas, if used to recharge aquifers.

There are numerous methods to harvest rain water in India. In traditional rain water harvesting techniques, water is usually collected in any surface water body i.e. lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc of rural areas. Another technique is kund or tanka which is a covered storage under ground tank. This technique is widely used in Rajasthan. Rain water harvesting structure can be made on the open spaces and even on the roof tops of the houses and the collected water can be used for domestic use by large number of people and reduce their dependence on ground water.

Other Methods

• To solve the problem of water scarcity, we can use brackish water of arid, semi-arid and coastal areas after the desalinised processes.
• By interlinking of rivers, water can be transferred from the water surplus areas to water deficit areas.

Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002

• The National water Policy, 2002 stipulates water allocations priorities broadly in the following order i.e. drinking water, irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses.
• The main objectives of this policy are to provide water to all human beings and animals, regular monitoring of surface and ground water quality, create awareness of water as a scarce resource, create conservation consciousness among people through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives, etc.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

The post Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 16 Water Resources appeared first on Learn CBSE.

English Workbook Class 10 Solutions Unit 8 Comparison are part of English Workbook Class 10 Solutions. Here we have given CBSE Class 10 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Comparison.

CBSE Class 10 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Comparison

A. Introduction

A.1.
When we compare we estimate, measure or note the similarity or dissimilarity between two or more people, places, things or ideas. And we often compare them in terms of size, shape, weight, colour, quality, manner, number, quantity, grade, actions, intensity, age, looks, feelings etc.

Do you know what term is used for the class of words we use for comparison ?

In this unit you will learn the various ways of comparing in English. You will also get some practice in using them.

See Workbook on Pages 131-132

Note: The focus above is on the grammar concept of ‘Comparatives’, well-supported by its elaborate clarification.

A. 2.
Study the table below and notice how the words of comparison are used.
See Workbook on Page 133
Have you noticed that the above examples have expressions like as … as, more … than, -er… than, the … -est or the most…. ? Why ? Discuss with a partner. The examples in the following table can give you some clues to the answer.
See Workbook on Page 134

Write your conclusions here :

Now write six comparative sentences. Use the information in Table A.1 that you worked out with your partner.

Example : My partner is taller than me.
His family isn’t as rich as mine.

Answers:

1. My complexion is fairer than hers.
2. He is as energetic as I.
3. The period of his service is less than that of mine.
4. His passion for basketball is not as intense as mine.
5. He walks faster than me.
6. His academic score is higher than that of mine.

A. 3.
Work with your partner and fill in the table with information about yourselves.
You may add other characteristics, if you like. When you have finished, compare the results.

A.4.
Read this feature article in which the writer compares the treatment of boys and girls. Complete the article by filling in the spaces with ONE appropriate word from the box given below. You may have to change the form of the word you need to use and some words may have to be used more than once.

than,much,few,less,as,many

For many parents, especially those who are poor and illiterate, a girl is a ‘lesser child’. Doesn’t it make you mad to know that girls aren’t given an equal chance to be born ? Though female infanticide was banned by law over a century ago, thousands of girls are killed before they are born or when they are babies.

Even the girls who are allowed to survive live with less of everything. ________ girls are sent to school ________ boys. They get ________ medical care, so ________ girls die. Boys get ________ nutritious food and also ________ time to play. ________ jobs are open to girls, and even if they are employed, they are not paid ________ as boys. Most of all, they get ________ respect. They are not given as ________ opportunities as boys to speak out on matters that concern them. And yet a girl usually does twice as ________ work ________ a boy, not only in the house but also in the fields.

This discrimination and bias must end, and end now ! Can we count on your support ?
Answer:
Fewer, than, less, many, more
much, Fewer, as much, less, many
much, as

A.5.
Work with your partner and list the names of magazines that you know.

Now make as many sentences as you can from the table below to express your own opinions about the magazines you have listed. Write your sentences in your note book.

Note: You may add more information if you like
When do we use (a) less than/ as much as and → In uncountable nouns
When do we use (b) fewer than/ as many as ? → In countable nouns
Create some sentences, and try to work out the “rule”.
Answer:
My Opinions on different Magazines

1. I think Outlook contains fewer interviews than Frontline.
2. I do not think Resonance contains as many advertisements as Femina.
3. India Today is more popular than Resonance.
4. The visuals in ‘Inside Outside’ are more appealing than those in India Today.

Some Sentences:

(a)

• The reward is less than what you expected.
• He ate as much as he could.

Rule. less than/as much as ; is used with uncountable nouns, eg reward, ate.

(b)

• The girls are fewer than the boys.
• The visuals are not as many as you expect.

Rule. fewer than/as many as ; is used in countable nouns, eg girls, visuals.

A.6.
Compare the two rockets shown below and complete the paragraph which follows.

The Selene, first launched in 1991, is five metres _________ (height) and three tonnes _________ (weight) _________ the Helios. The diameter of the Helios is _________ the Selene. However, the payload capacity of the Helios is 1 tonne, which is 0.1 tonne _________ the Selene. Interestingly, the Helios has a range of 3000 km, which is 700 km _________ the Selene.
Answers:
higher, weightier, than, as much as, less than that of, more than that of

A.7.
The chart below shows information on the economics of the Annual Sports Meet. Study the chart carefully.

See Workbook on Pages 138-139

Suppose you are the Principal of the school. Taking information from the chart, prepare an oral presentation for the Management Committee of the school. Use as many expressions of comparison as you can. You have been given some examples.

More girls will participate than boys.
Twice as much money will be spent on procuring sports equipment and apparatus as on tents, chairs and decoration.
As much as a quarter of all money has been ear-marked for organising a cultural extravaganza in the opening and closing ceremonies.
Answer:
The Economics of the Annual Sports Meet

Oral Presentation

This is to apprise the honourable members of the Management Committee that as much as a quarter of the total money has been earmarked for organising the Cultural Extravaganza. Fortunately, the participation of the girls will be more than that of the boys. The expenses on procuring sports equipment and tentage will be twice as much as was previously estimated. Even the number of mementoes, trophies and certificates will be about three times more than that of the last year’s sum-total. As far as the budget for refreshments is concerned, it is going to be far more than what was planned. However, the financial support from different sources is as encouraging as it was the last year.

A.8.
Compare the items in each picture using -er, more, less or an irregular form. Use the words under the pictures. You may write your answer in more than I one way.

Example : Ice-cream tastes better than yoghurt,

healthy, nutritious, fattening
Answer:
• Fresh fruits are healthier, more nutritious and less fattening than burgers.
• Burgers are less healthy, nutritious and fattening than fresh fruits.

cheap, effective, good
Answer:
• The soap cake is cheaper, more effective and better than clinic shampoo.
• Clinic shampoo is less cheap, effective and good than the soap cake.

economical, safer, eco-friendly
Answer:
• Cycling is safer, more economical and more eco-friendly than riding a motor-bike.
• Riding a motor-bike is less economical, safe and eco-friendly than cycling.

good, quick, safe
Answer:
• Sending e-mail is better, quicker and safer that that by ordinary post.
• Ordinary post is less good, quick and safe than that by e-mail.

informative, entertaining, popular
Answer:
• T.V. is more informative, entertaining and popular than transistor.
• Transistor is far less informative, entertaining and popular than T.V.

convenient, spacious, private
Answer:
• A detached house is more convenient, spacious and private than a flat or an apartment.
• A flat or an apartment is less convenient, spacious and private than a detached house.

useful, easy, handy, versatile
Answer:
• A Swiss knife is more useful, easier! handier and more versatile than a tin-can opener.
• A tin-can opener is less useful, easy/handy and versatile than a Swiss knife.

crowded, polluted, noisy
Answer:
• Life in cities is far more crowded, polluted and noisy than that in villages.
• Life in villages is far less crowded, polluted and noisy than that in cities.

fast, expensive, comfortable
Answer:
• Travel in an aeroplane is faster, more expensive and more comfortable than that in a train.
• Travel in a train is less fast, expensive and comfortable than that in an aeroplane.

quick, hygienic, nutritious
Answer:
• Food cooked in a pressure cooker is quicker, more hygienic and nutritious than that cooked in an ordinary cooking vessel.
• Food cooked in an ordinary cooking vessel is less quick, hygienic and nutritious than that cooked in a pressure cooker.

safe, comfortable, fast
Answer:
• Travel in a train is safer, more comfortable and faster than that of a bus.
• Travel in a bus is less safe, comfortable and fast than that in a train.

A.9.
Complete the following paragraph by filling in the blanks with the comparative form of words given in the box below :
expensive,cheap, good,costly,low
Answer:
Goods this year are costlier than last year, and next year things may be more expensive than they are now.

Here are some suggestions for saving money ! Compare the prices of similar products. Some brands are cheaper than others, but the quality may not be much lower.

Before you go shopping make a list of the items that you need and buy only those things ! Don’t buy things that you don’t need just because they are cheaper than the usual price, and don’t buy anything just to ‘keep up’ with your neighbours.

B. Avoiding Repetition

B.1.
The comparisons below involve some unnecessary repetition. Cross out any unnecessary words, to avoid repetition.

I can run faster than Asha can run.
I can run faster than Asha can.
I can run faster than Asha.

1. Today, Asia has far less forest cover than Asia had in the past.
2. The questions in the Physics test weren’t as easy as the questions in the Maths test.
3. The population of India is rising more quickly than the population of China.
4. Children were reading more in 1990 than they are reading now.
5. Children now spend far more time watching TV than they spend reading books.

Answers:

1. Nowadays, Asia has far fewer forests than it (once) had.
2. The questions in the Physics test weren’t as easy as those in the Maths test.
3. The population of India is rising more quickly than that of China.
4. Children were reading more in 1990 than they are now.
5. Children now spend far more time watching TV than reading books.

B.2.
Rewrite the following passage by removing the words that have been repeated. Use that or those, wherever necessary. You may have to make certain other changes, too.

Apes are in many ways similar to humans. The skeleton of an ape resembles the skeleton of a human and it has the same number of teeth as a human has. An ape’s brain is smaller than the brain of a human, but its structure is the same as the structure of a human brain. It is not surprising then, that apes behave rather like humans behave.

Of all apes, the chimpanzee is most similar to man. It is the most intelligent of all the apes and can be trained more easily than other apes. Some chimpanzees have been taught to communicate with humans through gestures like the gestures used in deaf and dumb language.
Answer:
Apes are in many ways similar to humans. The skeleton of an ape resembles that of a human and it has the same number of teeth as the latter has. An ape’s brain is smaller than that of a human, but its structure is the same as that of the latter. It is not surprising then, that apes behave rather like humans behave.

Of all apes, the chimpanzee is most similar to man. It is the most intelligent of all the apes and can be trained more easily than other apes. Some chimpanzees have been taught to communicate with humans through gestures like those used in deaf and dumb language.

B.3.
What does this proverb mean ?
The higher you climb, the harder you fall.
Match the clauses from column A with those in column B to form meaningful sentences.

Answer:
(a) The interpretation of the proverb is : The more dreamy you are, the more sad you will be.
(b) The clauses in the column A match with the following phrases in column B.

B.4.
Now complete the sentences below

1. The harder I work
— the stronger I feel.

2. The older you become
— the weaker you feel.

3. The more he earns
— the fatter he becomes.

4. The sooner she realizes her mistake
— the wiser she emerges.

5. The faster our team scores
— the luckier we feel.

C. Comparison of Trends

C. 1.
Look at the graph and the paragraph below which provides an interpretation of the data given in the graph.
Graph to show number of whales caught in Antarctic (1985-2010)

As whalers reduced catches of the larger whales, they switched to smaller species. This is evident when we compare figures for the Antarctic catch of the larger sei whale with those for small minke whale. In 1985, fifteen times as many sei whales as minke whales were caught. By 1995, catches of both the species were virtually the same (9000). By the 2000, the situation had reversed and the number of minke whales killed was more than doubled as compared to sei whales (6000). The graph shows that while the sei catch was reduced by 95% between 1985 and 2010, over the same period the minke whale catch was eight times greater. If these trends continue, the situation for the smaller species will be as bad as it used to be for the larger ones.

Discuss with a partner :

1. What expressions have been used for comparing the data ? Underline them.
2. Does the analysis identify the main trends ? Has any projection or guess been made based on the available data ?
3. Can you spot a sentence that summarizes the data or draws a conclusion based on it ?
4. Has the analysis been supported with figures from the given data ?
5. Is there any unnecessary repetition ?
6. How many times has the verb ‘be’ in its different forms been used ?

See Workbook on Page 147

Answer:
After the discussion with the partner, the results are given below :
1. The expressions for comparing the data have been underlined :

As whalers reduced catches of the larger whales, they switched to smaller species. This is evident when we compare figures for the Antarctic catch of the larger sei whale with those for small minke whale. In 1985, fifteen times as many sei whales as minke whales were caught. By 1995, catches of both the species were virtually the same (9000). By the 2000, the situation had reversed and the number of minke whales killed was more than doubled as compared to sei whales (6000). The graph shows that while the sei catch was reduced by 95% between 1985 and 2010, over the same period the minke whale catch was eight times greater. If these trends continue, the situation for the smaller species will be as bad as it used to be for the larger ones.

2. The main trends refer to the comparison of the trends in the two activities.
3. The conclusion emphasizes that if these trends continue, the situation for the smaller species will be as bad as it used to be for the larger ones.
4. The analysis is supported with the comparison of the situation between the years 1985 and 2010.
5. Not exactly ; there is hardly any repetition.
6. The use of verb ‘be’ in its different forms has been identified ie, they figure six times in the given passage which are given as under :

1. is evident
2. were caught
3. were virtually
4. had reversed
5. was reduced
6. was 8 times greater

C.2.
The graph below describes the average number of hours spent by students aged 11-15 years on two activities (per student per week) in India between 1985 and 2010 and gives projections for 2015. Study the information carefully and then write a paragraph interpreting the data. Include the following:

• A comparison of the trends in the two activities
• A comparison of the situation in 1985
• A comparison of the situation between 1985 and 2010
• Predictions for the future

Answer:
It can be seen from the graph that on the whole, time spent by the students on viewing TV between 1985 and 2010 has been increasing ; and on reading for pleasure, it has been decreasing. For instance in the year 1985, students spent hardly any time per week on watching TV as against fourteen hours spent by them on reading for pleasure. In the year 2010, they spent only three-fourth as much time reading as they did in 1985. If the present trends continue, the students by the year 2015 would be spending their time on viewing TV, a little more. It would be almost four times higher than on reading for pleasure.

D. Proportion

See the Workbook on Page 149

Look at the pie chart and the useful expressions above. Fill in the gaps in the following summary of results.

As can be seen from the above pie-chart, nearly a __________ of the teachers felt that Class X students must not be allowed to use mobile phones in the school campus. However, nearly one __________ believed the phones should be permitted but not during class hours. About __________ were of the opinion that the students may be allowed to use these phones only in times of emergency while a very __________ did not favour any restrictions on their use in the campus.
Answer:
half, quarter
one third, small number

D.2.
A school carried out two surveys in Class X. Look at the pie charts below and write short summaries of the results as in the model above.
See the Workbook on Page 150
Answer:
As can be seen from the above pie chart, nearly a quarter of the class thought. TV advertising should be banned completely. Just under a quarter thought advertisements should be on TV only after 9 pm. About another quarter felt that advertising of only certain products like alcohol should be banned. A small minority, however, thought that there should be no restrictions. Slightly less than a quarter thought that advertising should be censored.

See the Workbook on Page 151

Answer:
As we can see from the above chart, slightly less than half believed that young people should be considered independent when they reach the age of eighteen. Almost a quarter felt, they should attain the independent stature only when they are twenty one. A small minority, however, thought that independence is spontaneous when one gets a job. A few felt that age was not the criteria to become independent.

E. Superlatives

E.1.
Study the following sentences

Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.
The Pacific is the deepest of all the oceans in the world.
The Nile is the longest river in the world.

Now make similar sentences about the following. Use your general knowledge and imagination.

1. Diamonds are the hardest substances known to man.
2. The Himalayas are the longest mountain ranges.
3. The Ganga is the holiest river in India.
4. Leh is the coldest desert.
5. The Taj Mahal is the most beautiful monument in India.
6. Kolkata is the largest city of the country.
7. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets.
8. The elephant is the heaviest land mammal.
9. Mt. Everest is the tallest I highest mountain peak.
10. Russia is the oldest socialist country.

E.2.
Which of the following do you like best ? Write one or two sentences comparing your choice as shown in the example.

Comics, short stories, novels
I like comics best because they have the most colourful pictures. They are also the funniest.
I like short stories best because they don’t take much time to read.
I like novels best because they make the most interesting reading.

1. Cricket, football, hockey
I like cricket best because it is easier to play than football and hockey. It is also the most interesting.

2. Fruit, chocolate, ice-cream
I like fruit best because it is more nutritious than chocolate and ice-cream. It is also the freshest.

3. Theatre, TV, Cinema
I like TV the most because it provides more comfort than theatre and cinema. Also, it suits me the most in terms of time.

4. Cartoon films, Sci-fi (Science Fiction) films, comedy films
I like comedy films best because they are lighter in taste than cartoon films and Sci-fi (Science Fiction) films. They are also the most laughable.

5. (Think of three items of your own)
(i) Teaching, journalism, farming :
I like teaching best because it is easier than journalism and farming. It is also the most interesting.

(ii) Sailing, skiing, canoeing :
I like skiing best because it is more adventurous than sailing and canoeing. It is also the most interesting.

(iii) Reading, singing, playing :
I like reading best because it is more exciting than playing and sleeping. It is also the most refreshing.

F. Error Correction

Each sentence below contains an error. Identify and remove the error and rewrite the sentence correctly. You have been given one example.

The population of China is greater than India.
The population of China is greater than that of India.
(Explanation : China’s population is not greater than India, but India’s population)

Question 1.
Saeed runs quicker than Johnson.
Answer:
Saeed runs more quickly than Johnson.

Question 2.
The faster land animal in the world is the cheetah.
Answer:
No other land animal in the world is faster than the cheetah.

Question 3.
Our house is bigger than your.
Answer:
Our house is bigger than yours.

Question 4.
On an average, people in cities earn more money than that living in villages.
Answer:
On an average, people in cities earn more money than those in villages.

Question 5.
His grade is the same than mine.
Answer:
His grade is the same as (that of) mine.

Question 6.
Ranvir is slightly taller as Javed.
Answer:
Ranvir is slightly taller than Javed.

Question 7.
Developed countries consume twice more resources as developing countries.
Answer:
Developed countries consume twice as much resources as developing countries.

Question 8.
The clock tower is most prominent landmark in this area.
Answer:
The clock tower is the most prominent landmark in this area.

We hope the English Workbook Class 10 Solutions Unit 8 Comparison help you. If you have any query regarding CBSE Class 10 English Workbook Solutions Unit 8 Comparison, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

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NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Chapter 9 Force and Laws of Motion are part of NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science. Here we have given NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 9 Force and Laws of Motion.

NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 9 Force and Laws of Motion

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
The microorganisms present in the soil require moisture (water) and nutrients for growth and survival. Choose from the options below the habitat (place) where the soil has plenty of water and nutrients.
(a) Desert
(b) Forest
(c) Open field
(d) Cricket ground
Solution:
(b) In a forest, a large number of deep rooted trees are found. Roots of trees hold soil particles and protect top soil (which contains humus) from getting eroded. Humus makes soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants. Trees in a forest act as natural absorbers and help the soil to absorb a huge quantity of the rainwater. So, in forest habitat soil has plenty of water and nutrients.

Question 2.
Availability of water and minerals in the soil for maximum absorption by roots is in the
(a) B-horizon
(b) C-horizon
(c) A-horizon
(d) surface of soil.
Solution:
(c) A – horizon is top soil, rich in humus. Humus improves the texture of soil, increases soil aeration and water holding capacity of soil as well as provides nutrients to the growing plants. This soil layer also contains minerals. Humus and minerals make the soil fertile and favour plant growth.

Question 3.
Soil conservation measures are mainly aimed at pr0tecting which of the following?
(a) Plants
(b) Topsoil
(c) Subsoil
(d) Soil organisms
Solution:
(b): Top soil is rich in humus which is dark brown in colour and consists of decaying remains of plants and animals. Humus improves the texture of the soil and provides nutrients for plant growth. So, it is most fertile region and soil conservation measures are mainly aimed at protecting top soil. If top soil is protected or conserved then subsoil is also conserved because it lies below the top soil.

Question 4.
Read the following statements with reference to soil.
(i) Weathering is a very fast process of soil formation.
(ii) Percolation of water is faster in sandy soils.
(iii) Loamy soil contains only sand and clay.
(iv) Top soil contains the maximum amount of humus.
Choose the correct statements from the above.
(a) (ii) and (iv)
(b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (i) and (ii)
Solution:
(a): Weathering is the breaking down of huge pieces of rocks into smaller pieces by the action of natural forces such as water, glaciers, wind and roots of plants, etc. It takes hundreds of years to produce a few centimeters of soil. So, it is a very slow process.
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay and also has humus in it.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 5.
Soil has particles of different sizes. Arrange the words given below in increasing order of their particle size.
[ Rock, Clay, Sand, Gravel, Silt ]
Solution:
Clay < Silt < Sand < Gravel < Rock

Question 6.
The components of loamy soil are___,____ and____ .
Solution:
Sand, silt, clay

Question 7.
Read the following statements and give the appropriate terms for each of them.
(a) The process of breakdown of rocks by the action of wind, water, sunlight.
(b) Removal of top soil during heavy rains or strong winds.
(c) Accumulation of wastes in the soil generated by human activity which alter the features of soil.
(d) The process of movement of water into deeper layers of soil.
Solution:
(a) Weathering
(b) Erosion
(c) Soil pollution
(d) Percolation

Question 8.
Unscramble the following jumbled words related to soil.

Solution:
(a) HUMUS
(b) SOIL PROFILE
(c) HORIZON
(d) LOAM
(e) WEATHERING
(f) PERCOLATION

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 9.
Which of the following situations – ‘A’ or ‘B’ – is advantageous for absorption of water and minerals? Why?
Situation A: Growth and branching of roots in the C-horizon.
Situation B: Growth and branching of roots in A and B-horizons.
Solution:
Situation B is advantageous to plants because A and B horizons are humus rich regions and humus improves the texture of soil, increases water holding capacity of soil and provides nutrients for the growth of plants. Minerals are also present in A and B horizons. Humus and minerals make soil fertile and help in growth of plants. So growth and branching of roots in A and B – horizons is advantageous for absorption of water and ( minerals by plants.

Question 10.
How can a farmer convert acidic soil to neutral soil?
Solution:
Farmer can convert acidic soil to neutral soil by adding small quantity of quick lime solution or slaked lime solution into the soil.

Question 11.
Is it a good practice to remove grass and small plants that are growing in an open, unused I field? Give reason to support your answer.
Solution:
No. it is not a good practice. Plants cover
the soil surface and their roots bind the soil | particles and hold them in place. During strong winds and rains they protect the top soil and thereby prevent soil erosion.

Question 12.
A man digging a pit found that he could dig with ease initially but digging became difficult as he went deeper. He could not dig beyond a depth of 5 feet. Provide a suitable scientific explanation.
Solution:
The soil surface has loose top soil which is easier to dig. At deeper layers, partially weathered rocks or bedrocks are present | which are hard and make digging difficult.

Question 13.
Locate the following zones given as boxed items in figure 9.1 which shows a diagram of soil profile.
[Topsoil, Subsoil, C-horizon, Bedrock ]

Solution:
The main layers of soil are top soil (A horizon), sub soil (B horizon), parent rock (C horizon) and bedrock which are shown in the given soil profile.

Question 14.
Rajasthan is a desert state in India. Once while traveling to Rajasthan by train, Boojho observed several streams and rivulets of rainwater during the journey but to his surprise he did not see streams of water in the desert region even during rains. Help Boojho find a suitable explanation for this.
Solution:
Deserts are vast stretches of sandy soil. In sandy soil, due to the presence of large spaces between the sand particles, the water drains out quickly. Therefore, sandy soil cannot hold much water and tends to be light and dry. It is because of this reason that in deserts, the falling rainwater immediately percolates downwards in the spaces between sand particles. Due to this, Boojho did not see streams of water in the desert region.

Question 15.
Match the animals in column I with their natural place of dwelling (habitat) in column II

Solution:
(a) (vi)
(b) (iv)
(c) (i)
(d) (ii)
(e) (iii)
(f) (v)

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 16.
Continuously water-logged soils are dis-advantageous for plant growth. Why?
Solution:
Roots, although underground, possess living cells that require oxygen for respira¬tion and production of energy. They absorb oxygen that is present in the spaces between soil particles. But in water logged soils, water occupies the spaces between soil particles and pushes the oxygen out into the atmosphere. Thus, roots are deprived of oxygen and this affects plant growth.

Question 17.
Why is soil erosion relatively less in dense for-ests as compared to barren, open fields?
Solution:
In dense forests, the tree cover (canopy) prevents rainwater from directly falling on the forest floor/soil. The canopy layer of for¬est intercepts the flow of raindrops so that rainwater falls on the leaves of trees and then drips slowly onto the forest floor. Thus, forests allow rainwater to seep. Also roots of the veg¬etation bind the soil particles and hold them firmly. This protects the top soil and prevents it from getting eroded by wind or water. But in barren, open fields the soil is exposed to the wind and falling rain. The soil particles become loose and easily get carried away by blowing wind or flow of water. Hence, soil erosion is relatively less in dense forests as compared to open barren fields.

Question 18.
Gardeners gently dig up the soil around the roots of garden herbs (plants) frequently. Give reasons.
Solution:
Gardeners gently dig up the soil around the roots of garden herbs frequently. This is done
(i) for enabling easy root growth
(ii) for easier percolation of water
(iii) for aerating the soil and enabling air to get into deeper layers of soil
(iv) for removing the weeds.

Question 19.
In towns and cities, generally, the bore wells have to be dug very deep to get water as compared to bore wells dug in villages. Give suitable reasons.
Solution:
In towns and cities, generally, the bore wells have to be dug very deep to get water as compared to bore wells dug in villages. It is so because of the following reasons :
(i) Excessive use of water in towns and cities depletes the groundwater.
(ii) Towns and cities have asphalated roads and vast areas of soil are concreted. As a result, rainwater cannot percolate to recharge groundwater and the groundwater level further decreases. Villages have larger areas of open soil surface and fewer asphalated roads and concrete surfaces. Thus, larger soil surface area is available for rainwater to percolate into the soil easily and recharge the groundwater. As a result, even shallow bore wells yield water in village.

Question 20.
Several terms related to soil are hidden in the squares given as figure 9.2 Spot them and make a list. Two examples are given for you.

Solution:
The terms hidden in the given word grid are – Profile, Humus, Rock, Silt, Horizon, Weathering, Erosion, Plant, Gravel, Sand, Clay, Percolation, Water and Mineral

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy Resources is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 17 Mineral and Energy Resources.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy Resources

Types of Mineral Resources
Mineral are classified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties which are as follows:

Metallic Minerals
These minerals are rich in metals e.g. copper, bauxite, iron, manganese, etc. These are of two types:

• Ferrous Minerals These are rich in iron contents and an important source of iron.
• Non-Ferrous Minerals These do not have iron content and have highest proportion of other metals. For e.g. copper, bauxite, etc.

Non-Metallic Minerals
These minerals do not have contents of metals. They are classified into two groups:

• Organic Minerals These are made up of organic matter of buried animal and plants. For e.g, coal, petroleum.
• Inorganic Minerals These are inorganic in nature of origin. For e.g. Mica, limestone, graphite, etc.

Characteristics of Minerals Resources
The main characteristics of minerals are as follows:

1.  Their distribution over the earth surface are uneven.
2. There is inverse relationship in quantity and quality of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals.
3. Minerals are exhaustible. Once they used can not replenished immediately at the time of need. So, minerals have to be conserved and used judiciously.

Distribution of Minerals in India

• Most of metallic minerals in India occur in the Peninsular Plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.
• River valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari have over 97% of coal reserves in India.
• Sedimentary basins of Assam and offshore region in the Arabian Sea (Gujarat and Mumbai High) are famous for their crude petroleum reserves.
• New reserves of petroleum also have been found in the basins of Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri.
• Most of the’major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
• Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India.
  There may be some sporadic occurrences here and there in isolated pockets. These belts are:

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

• This belt includes the regions of Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhhattisgarh.
• Important minerals are iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite and mica.
• Due to availability of these minerals, most of the iron and steel industries are located here.

The South-Western Plateau Region

• This belt extends to lower Karnataka, Goa and contiguous uplands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• Ferrous metals and bauxite are concentrated here along with high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone. This belt is rich in coal packs except neyveli lignite.
• Neyveli has lignite coal deposit. Deposits of monazite sand and thorium are found in Kerala.
• Mines of iron-ore are located in Goa.

The North-Western Regions

• Minerals of this belt are associated with Dharwar system of rocks which are found in the Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
• Major minerals are copper and zinc. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble, fuller’s earth and gypsum.
• Some cement industries are also concentrated here due to availability of dolomite and limestone which are the raw materials of these industries.
• Gujarat is rich in petroleum deposits. Salt is also produced in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Other Areas/Regions

• Both Eastern and Western parts of the Himalayan belt have minerals like copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten.
• Assam Valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides, oil resources are also found in off-shore areas near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).

Spatial Pattern of Metallic Minerals
Spatial pattern of some of the important minerals are as follow:

Ferrous Minerals

• India is well placed in respect of ferrous minerals like iron-ore, manganese, chromite, etc.
• These minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

Iron ore
India has largest iron ore reserves in Asia. Its superior quality of hematite and magnetic iron-ore have a great demand in International market. Iron ore mines of India are found near the coal fields of North-Eastern Plateau region which is an advantage for iron-ore industries of India. During 2004-05, India has about 20 billion tonnes of iron-ore reserves. Few Indian states have about 95% of total iron-ore reserves in India.
These states are:

• Odisha The important mines are located at Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar in Mayurbhanj and Kiruburce and Bonai (Sundergarh) have important mines. Jharkhand It has oldest mines in India. Important mines are Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Paschimi Singhbhum districts.
• Chhattisgarh The mine belt further extended to Durg, Dantewada, Bailadiala, Dalli and Rajhara.
• Karnataka Important mines are Sundar-Hospet area of Bellary distict, Baba Budan hills and Kundremukh in Chikmogalur Tumkur districts,
• Maharashtra Important iron-ore deposits are located in Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts.
• Andhra Pradesh Important areas of iron ore are Karimnagar Warangal, Kumool, Cuddapah and Anantpur districts.
• Others These include Salem and Nilgiris Districts of Tamil Nadu state and Goa state.

Manganese
It is an important raw material which is used in iron and steel industry for smelting of iron-ore and in the manufacturing of ferro alloys.
It is mainly associated with Dharwar system but found almost in all geological formations. Important states are:

• Odisha It is the largest manganese producer of India. The central part of the iron-ore belt of India has most of the manganese mines of Odisha. Important mines are located in the districts of Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
• Karnataka Dharwar, Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chiradurg and Tumkur.
• Maharashtra The main disadvantage of its mines are that these are located away from iron and steel plants. Nagpur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri have manganese mines.
• Madhya Pradesh Balaghat, Chhindwara, Nimar, Mandla and Jhabua districts have manganese mines.
• Others Other producer states of manganese are Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Jharkhand.

Non-Ferrous Minerals
India has large deposits of bauxite but is lacking behind in other non-ferrous minerals.

Bauxite
It is the ore that used to manufacture aluminum and aluminium products.
It is found in laterite rocks mostly in the plateau or hilly regions of peninsular India and also in the coastal areas. Important states are:

• Odisha It is the largest producer of bauxite and important producing areas are Kalahandi, Sambalpur, Bolangir and Koraput.
• Jharkhand Pelands of Jharhand in Lohardage home rich deposits.
• Gujarat Bhavanagar and Jamnagar are important sites of bauxite.
• Chattisgarh Amarkanatak plateau region has large deposits of bauxite.
• Madhya Pradesh Katni-Jabalpur and Balaghat have important deposits of bauxite.
• Others Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are other producers of bauxite.

Copper
It is alloyable, malleable and ductile and an indispensable metal in electrical industry used for making wires, electric motors, transformers and generators.
It is also used to give strength in gold jewelleries. Important copper producing states are:

• Jharkhand Singbhum district
• Madhya Pradesh Balaghat
• Rajasthan Jhunjhunu and Alwar
• Andhra Pradesh Agnigundala in Guntur district
• Karnataka Chitradurg and Hasan
• Tamil Nadu South Arcot district

Non-Metallic Minerals
Limestone, dolomite, phosphate and mica are some non-metallic minerals produced in India. Mica is the important among them while others are produced for domestic consumption.

Mica
Mica is mainly used in the electrical/electronic industries which can be split into very thin, strong and flexible sheets.
Due to its resistance quality it is used in electricals and electronic industry. Important producer states are:

• Jharkhand Hazaribagh plateau produces a high quality of mica.’
• Andhra Pradesh Nellore district is important producer of mica, it produces best quality mica.
• Rajasthan A 320 km long belt from Jaipur to Bhilwara near Udaipur produces mica.
• Karnataka Mysore and Hasan are important producers of mica.
• Others Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and KanyaKumari (Tamil Nadu), Ratnagiri(Maharashtra), Alleppey, (Kerala), Purulia and Bankura (West Bengal) are also known for mica deposits.

Energy Resources
All sectors of economy i.e. agriculture, industry, transport are run by power which comes from mineral fuels whether conventional or non-conventional energy resources.

Conventional Sources of Energy
These are exhaustible in nature e.g. fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas.

Coal

• It is required in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron-ore.
• India has about 80% of bituminous coal which is of non-cooking grade.
• It is found in two rock sequences i.e. Gondwana coal fields and tertiary coal fields.

Gondwana Coal Fields
Damodar Valley is the important coal field of India. Jharkhand and West Bengal coal have the entire area of this coal field. Jharia (largest coal field), Raniganj (second fields largest), Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura are important coal fields of this valley. Other river valleys are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone.

Tertiary Coal Fields
Important states are:
Meghlaya Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya).
Assam Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in Upper Assam.
Arunachal Pradesh Namchik-Namphurk Jammu and Kashmir Kalakot Others Nagaland state

Other Coal Fields
Besides, the brown coal or lignite coal occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir.

Petroleum
Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical composition, colour and specific gravity. It is used as a source of energy in all internal combustion engines of automobiles, railways and aircrafts. It is also used as a raw material in petrochemical industries to produce fertilizer, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax soap and cosmetics, etc.

It is also called liquid gold due to the scarcity and different uses. Crude oil is found in sedimentary rocks of tertiary age. Before independence, Digboi was the only crude oil producing region in India but after independence in 1956, Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up.
Important oil producing regions are:

• Assam Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran.
• Gujarat and Mumbai High Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehasana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej. Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri basin also have Oil and Natural Gas reserves on the East coast of India.

There are two types of oil refineries in India:

• Field Based Refineries Digboi is an example of field based refinery.
• Market Based Refineries Barauni is an example of market based refinery. There are total 21 refineries as on June 2011.

Natural Gas

• It occurs alongwith oil as well as separately in gas reserves in India.
• These gas reserves are located alongwith Eastern cost of Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Gujarat and Maharashtra have off-shore wells of natural gas.
• According to a survey report, there are indications of huge gas reserves in Ramathanpuram in Tamil/Nadu state.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

• Unlike conventional sources of energy, non-conventional energy sources are renewable i.e. solar, wind, hydro-geothermal and biomass and are not threat to natural system.
• Their use ensure sustainable development as these are environment friendly and cheaper energy sources.

Nuclear Energy Sources

• Nuclear energy has emerged as a feasible source in recent times.
• Uranium and thorium are main minerals that are used to generate nuclear energy.

Uranium Deposits in India
It is found in Dharwar rock system. Important regions are:

• Jharkhand Singbhum (alongwith the copper belt)
• Rajasthan Udaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu districts.
• Chhattisgarh Durg district Maharastra Bhandara district.
• Himachal Pradesh Kullu district.

Thorium Deposits in India
It is found in very few places in India:

• Kerala (in monazite and ilmenitte beach sands) Plakkad and Kollam districts.
• Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam.
• Odisha Mahanadi river delta

These three states have world’s richest monazite deposits. The development of nuclear energy was started after establishment of Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalapakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat) are other nuclear power sites in India.

Solar Energy

• Sun’s energy trapped by two methods i.e. photovoltaic cells and solar thermal technology and convert into electricity is called solar energy.
• Its construction is easy, eco-friendly and cost competitive.
• It is 7% and 10% more effective than coal and oil based plants and nuclear energy, respectively.
• Heaters, dryers, cookers and other heating appliances use solar energy more than others.
• Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Western part of India have higher potential for the development of solar energy.

Wind Energy

• Wind energy is non-polluting and renewable source. Through turbine mechanism, kinetic energy of wind can be directly converted into electrical energy.
• Electricity can be produced by permanent wind systems like trade wind, westerlies or seasonal winds like monsoon winds. Besides, production of electricity can also be done by local winds, land and sea breezes.
• India already has started generating wind energy to lessen the burden of oil import bill. It is
  estimated that India has 50000 megawatts potential of wind generation, of which one-fourth may be easily employed.
• Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka have higher potential for the development of wind energy.

Tidal and Wave Energy

• Ocean currents are the store house of infinite energy. Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India.
• Many efforts for the efficient use of oceanic tides and waves were made since 17th and 18th century.
• But these waves have not yet been utilised properly because of lack of technology’.
  Geothermal Energy
• Magma that comes over the earth’ surface releases vast amount of heat. This heat energy can be converted into electrical energy by tapping it. It is called

geothermal energy

• Main sources of this energy are magma, hot spring (hot water), hot geysers, etc.
• Geothermal energy is gaining importance and can be used as an alternative to conventional energy sources.
• In India at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned.

Bio-Energy

• Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes.
• It can be converted into electricity or electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking food.
• This can also solve the problem of garbage and waste in urban areas because energy can also be derived from these.
• It can contribute in improving economic life of rural peoples in developing countries, increasing environmental problems like pollution, solid waste management, enhancing self-reliance and reducing pressure on fuel wood.
• A project in OKHLA (Delhi) is an example that generates energy from municipal waste.

Conservation of Mineral Resources
There are some methods through which we can conserve mineral resources:

1. Adoption of renewable resources in place of exhaustible resources like solar power, wind, geothermal energy can save our non-renewable resources.
2. Use of recycle scrap metals should be encouraged.
3. Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
4. Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a longer period.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy Resources will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy Resources, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

The post Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 17 Mineral and Energy Resources appeared first on Learn CBSE.

Political Science Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 1 The Cold War Era is part of Political Science Class 12 Important Questions. Here we have given Political Science Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 1 The Cold War Era.

Political Science Class 12 Important Questions Chapter 1 The Cold War Era

1 Mark Questions

Question 1.
Which two objectives Jawaharlal Nehru wished to achieve through the strategy of Non-Alignment? (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
The two objectives Jawaharlal Nehru wished to achieve through the strategy of Non-Alignment were :

1. To equip India to take a firm stand on international issues.
2. To enable India to balance one superpower against the other through Nans

Question 2.
Why was the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation also called Western Alliance? (Delhi 2015)
AHS.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was also known as the Western Alliance because most countries of Western Europe sided with the US.

Question 3.
Why was the Warsaw Pact also called the ‘Eastern Alliance’? (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
The Warsaw Pact was also called the ‘Eastern Alliance’ due to the alliance of Eastern European countries with the Soviet Union.

Question 4.
What is the full form of ‘SE/ TO’? (AH India 2015)
Answer:
The full form of ‘SEATO’ is the South East Asian Treaty Organisation.

Question 5.
What is meant by the Cold Warn (Delhi 2014)
OR
What is Cold War? (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
The Cold War was the tense relationship between the US and the USSR and their allies which emerged after the Second World War. The outbreak of the Cold War was due to the different ways of thinking i.e. socialism and capitalism. This war was unlike other wars in which the two sides never clashed directly in battle.

Question 6.
Name the two superpowers responsible for the Cold War. When did the world become unipolar? (Delhi 2013)
Answer:
The USA and the USSR were the two superpowers responsible for the Cold War. The world became unipolar with the disintegration of the USSR in 1991, thus, ending the bipolarity regime.

Question 7.
When and why did India sign the twenty-years ‘Treaty of Peace and Friendship’ with the Soviet Union? (All India 2012)
Answer:
India signed the twenty years ‘Treaty of Peace and Friendship’ with the Soviet Union in 1971 in order to counter the US-Pakistan, China axis. This treaty assumed India of Soviet support if the country forced any attack.

Question 8.
Why has India refused to sign the CTBT? (All Indio 2011)
Answer:
India has opposed the International treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimized the monopoly of five nuclear powers. Thus, India has refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

Question 9.
What was the main objective of the New International Order? (All India 2011)
Answer:
The main objective of the New International Order was the development of the Least Developed Countries (LDC) and to lift their people out of poverty.

Question 10.
What was the New International Order? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
New International Order was the order aimed at the economic development of the Least Developed Countries (LDC) and to lift their people out of poverty.

11. “Non-Alignment does not imply neutrality or equidistance”. What does this statement mean? (HOTS; All India 2011)
Answer:
The statement means that Non-Alignment is not a policy of ‘fleeing away’ or being neutral from the superpowers. It also means playing an active role in mediating between the two rival alliances for the cause of peace and stability.

Question 12.
Mention the impact of the end of the Cold War. (All India 2010)
Answer:
Impact of the end of the Cold War was:

1. The hostility between the US and the USSR came to an end.
2. The Soviet Union was disintegrated.
3. The end of the Cold War meant ‘the end of Bipolarity’ in the world.

Question 13.
What is meant by unipolarity and bipolarity? (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
Unipolarity means the emergence of only one power i.e. the USA after the disintegration of USSR. Bipolarity means the emergence of two military alliances headed by two superpowers i.e. USSR and USA.

Question 14.
Why did India not join either NATO nor SEATO? (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
India did not join either NATO or SEATO due to the development of Non-Alignment which gave it a way of staying out of the alliances. India had faith in the policy of Non-Alignment.

Question 15.
What is the balance of power? (All India 2008)
Answer:
Balance of power means when both sides have the capacity to fight against the attack and to cause so much destruction that neither an effort to initiate war.

Question 16.
Mention the name of the Eastern alliance led by the Soviet Union. (All India 2008)
Answer:
The Eastern alliance was also known as the Warsaw Pact. It was created in 1955 with principle function to counter NATO’s forces in Europe. It was led by the Soviet Union.

Question 17.
List any two characteristics of the Non-Aligned Movement. (All India 2008)
Answer:
Two characteristics of the Non-Aligned Movement were

1. Dissociation from military alliances.
2. Aiming for world peace.

2 Marks Questions

Question 1.
In which way did the policy of Non-Alignment serve India’s interests? (All India 2017)
Answer:
Non-Alignment helped India is furthering his\national interest. It served India’s interests in two ways :

1. It equipped India to take a firm stand on international issues. This way India found its place in the international political system.
2. India through NAM also managed to balance one superpower against the other. It did not invite any threat from either bloc; neither alliances system could take India for granted or bully it.

Question 2.
Mention any two major military features of the Cold War. (Delhi 2016.2010.2008)
Answer:
The two major military features of the Cold War:

1. Both Western and Eastern blocs competed against each other in building up their military forces as they believed that it was the key to national security.
2. The two blocs devoted much of the national capital and human resources in developing nuclear weapons as it was regarded that possession of a large number of nuclear weapons would bring national security.

Question 3.
Which two ideologies were involved in a conflict during the Cold War era and why? (Delhi 2016)
Answer:
Two ideologies involved in a conflict during the Cold War era were :

• The ideology of liberal democracy and capitalism (USA).
• The ideology of socialism and communism (Soviet Union).

These two ideologies were involved in a conflict during the Cold War era because both the superpowers (USA and USSR) were keen on expanding their ideological spheres of influence in different parts of the world.

Question 4.
What was the Cuban Missile Crisis? Delhi 2016.2015,2014; (All India 2012,2011)
OR
What was the Cuban Missile Crisis? Name the two world leaders who played a crucial role in it. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Missile Crisis is a term that denotes the confrontation/clash between the two superpowers i.e., the USA and the USSR.

The Soviet Union led by the Nikita Khrushchev installed nuclear missiles in Cuba in the hope of converting Cuba into a Russian base. This installation of nuclear missiles threatened a number of cities in the American mainland. As a result, the US President, John F. Kennedy, and his advisors ordered the American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba so as to avoid a full-scale nuclear war. This series of tensions and confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union is known as the ‘Cuban Missile Crisis’ which later came to be known as ‘Cold War’.

Two world leaders who played a crucial role in the Cuban Mission Crisis were Nikita Khrushchev and John F Kennedy.

Question 5.
What constrained the superpowers to go for a full-fledged war in spite of having nuclear weapons? (AH India 2016)
Answer:
The reason behind constraining the superpowers to go for war is the ‘logic of deterrence’. According to the ‘logic of deterrence’ when both the sides have a capacity to respond against each other and each side has the capacity to ruin the other to such an extent that no country can initiate a war.

Question 6.
Mention any two of the agreements signed between the two superpowers starting in the 1960s. (All India 2016)
OR
Name any two significant agreements signed by the two superpowers in the 1960s. (AH India 2010)
Answer:
The two agreements signed between the two superpowers starting in the 1960s were :

• Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) It was signed by the US, UK, and USSR in Moscow on 5th August 1963.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) It was signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on 1st July 1968.

Question 7.
Name any four founders of NAM and the countries they belonged to respectively, (AH India 2016)
OR
Name any two foreign leaders, along with the countries they belonged to, who are recognized as the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. All India 2014
OR
Match the following founders of NAM to the country they belonged. (Delhi 2008)

Answer:
Four founders of NAM and their respective countries are :

Question 8.
What is meant by Non-Alignment? (Delhi 2014)
Answer:
India’s Policy of Non-alignment India’s policy of non-alignment was neither negative nor passive. India’s policy can be highlighted in the following two ways :

1. Firstly, non-alignment allowed India to take international decisions and steps that served its interests rather than the interest of the superpowers and their allies.
2. Secondly, India was often able to balance one superpower against the other.

Question 9.
Which organization came into existence in April 1949? (All India 2014)
Answer:
The North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) came into existence in April 1949. It was an association of twelve states which declared that armed attack on any one of them in Europe or North America would be regarded as an attack on all of them. Each of these states would be obliged to help the other.

Question 10.
What is meant by ‘Arenas of Cold War’? (All India 2014)
OR
What do we refer to as Arenas of Cold War? Give any one example. (Delhi 2006)
Answer:
Arenas were the areas where the Cold War-driven crisis took place. The Cold War led to several shooting wars and conflicts. Huge military build-ups combined with failed diplomacy between the superpowers made the situation worse. The USA and the USSR came in direct confrontations in Korea (1950-53), Berlin (1958-62), the Congo (the early 1960s) and in other places.

Question 11.
Why did India not join either of two camps during the Cold War? (Delhi 2012)
OR
Why did India not join either of the two superpower camps during the Cold War era? (All indie 2010)
Answer:
India did not join any alliance because it was against the bipolarity caused by the superpowers. India was in favor of preserving its sovereignty which could have been diluted by entering into an alliance.

Question 12.
Mention the duration of the First and the Second World War. (All India 2012, 2010)
Answer:
Duration of the First and Second World war is given below The duration of the First World War—1914 to 1918 The duration of the Second World War-1939 to 1945

Question 13.
Why did the two superpowers try to control the smaller nations during the Cold War? (All India 2009)
Answer:
The two superpowers tried to control the smaller nations during the Cold War because of the following reasons:

1. They wanted to expand their area of influence.
2. They wanted to establish their military bases in smaller countries.

Question 14.
What is the relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) after the end of the bipolar world? (All India 2009)
Answer:
The role of NAM became more pronounced after the disintegration of the US SR in 1991. The USA came out as the single superpower and thus, the world became unipolar. With the downfall of the socialist camp, the Cold War rivalry lessened.

To some extent, NAM proved to be effective in the later period. It has not lost its relevance and the emphasis has shifted from political issues to economic issues such as poverty alleviation, equity injustice, promotion of industrialization, etc.

Question 15.
Mention any two examples of international issues where India took an independent stand, (AH India; Delhi 2008)
Answer:
Two examples where India took an independent stand are :

1. India led the world protest against Britain when the latter attacked Egypt over Suez canal issue in 1956.
2. The daring act of India of refusing to sign the NPT in 1968.

Question 16.
Give any two reasons why the smaller states in alliances in the Cold War era, used the link to the superpowers. All Indio 2008
Answer:
The smaller states in alliances in the Cold War era used the link to the superpowers because they were promised with protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals, mostly regional neighbors with ‘whom they had rivalries’.

Question 17.
Mention any two reforms in the UN after the Cold War. (Delhi to 2008)
Answer:
Two reforms in the UN after the Cold War were:

1. Reform of the organization’s structure and processes.
2. Review of the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organization.

Question 18.
Mention the full forms of All Indio (C) 2008
(i) CENTO
(ii) NATO
(iii) LDC
(iv) SEATO
Answer:
Full forms of the given words are :
(i) CENTO—Central Treaty Organisation
(ii) NATO—North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(iii) LDC—Least Developed Countries
(iv) SEATO—South East Asian Treaty Organisation

Question 19.
Name one pact of Eastern alliances and three pacts of Western alliances during the Cold War. (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
One pact of Eastern alliances was the Warsaw Pact between USSR and its allies.
Three pacts of Western alliances were :

• NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
• SEATO South East Asian Treaty Organisation
• CENTO Central Treaty Organisation

Question 20.
Mention any two superpowers confrontation during the Cold War which took place in (AH India 2008)
(i) 1950-53
(ii) 1962
Answer:

1. 1950-53 During this period, the Korean war took place in which North Korea invaded South Korea. United Nation and the USA sided with South Korea and China and USSR with North Korea.
2. 1962 In 1962 Cuban crisis occurred. In communist-ruled Cuba, both superpowers USA and USSR confronted over the deployment of missiles. USSR stopped deployment of missiles over the objection and interception of their ships by the US.

Question 21.
How did NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty) not seek to abolish nuclear weapons and was discriminatory? (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
NPT’s main concern was to curb the proliferation of nuclear weapons not the abolition of that. It allowed only nuclear weapon states to possess nuclear weapons and stopped others from acquiring it. Hence, it was discriminatory between nuclear weapon states and other countries of the world.

4 Marks Questions

Question 1.
Why did India distance itself from the two camps led by the US and the Soviet Union? Explain. (Delhi 2015)
Answer:
After the Second World War, there were two camps led by the US and the Soviet Union who became the superpowers. These two superpowers were keen on expanding their spheres of influence in different parts of the world. Many countries decided to join either the US or the USSR. But a country like India distanced itself from the two camps. The reason behind this was the policy of Non-Alignment which it followed.

India adopted the policy of non-alignment because it gave India the power to take international decisions and Steps that served its interest rather than the interests of the superpowers and their allies and also the power to balance one superpower against the other.

Non-Alignment helped India in furthering its national interest.

Question 2.
Why did the superpowers need smaller states as their allies? Explain any four reasons. (All India 2014)
OR
State four reasons as to why superpowers should have military alliances with small countries. (All Indio 2012)
OR
Why did the superpowers have military alliances with the small countries? State any four reasons for it. (Delhi 2013, 2010)
Answer:
The USA and the USSR were the superpowers of the world. They exercised tremendous political, economic and military powers at their disposal.
The reasons due to which superpowers should have military alliances with small countries were :

1. They entered into military alliances with smaller countries to spread their ideas and to propagate their ideologies to checkmate the other.
2. The small countries were economically retarded, they easily got accommodated into their military plan.
3. Also having a large number of smaller countries in one’s camp boosted the balance of power towards a particular bloc.
4. To gain access to their vital resources such as oil and minerals.

Question 3.
Why is the policy of Non-Alignment of India criticized? Explain any two reasons. (All India 2013)
OR
India’s policy of Non-Alignment has been criticized for being ‘inconsistent’ and ‘unprincipled’. Do you agree? Why? (Delhi 2009)
Answer:
India’s policy of Non-Alignment has been criticized for being ‘inconsistent’ and unprincipled due to following reasons:

1. Firstly, Non-Alignment was seen as unprincipled because India was unable to communicate its ideas clearly to the world. On many occasions, India did not rise above to take a solid stand on world issues.
2. Secondly, India took contradictory postures which were highly inconsistent with its foreign policy. For instance, India’s Treaty of Friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years was considered as the violation of the principles of the Nans

Question 4.
Name any two founders of Nans The first NAM summit was the culmination of which three factors? (Delhi 2012)
OR
Mention the names of any two founders of NAM (Non-Aligned Movement). The first NAM summit was the culmination of which three factors? (All India 2008)
Answer:
The founders of the Non-Aligned Movement were:

• Jawaharlal Nehru of India
• Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia

The first NAM summit was held in Belgrade in 1961. Following factors were responsible for this summit

1. NAM countries were cooperating on various world agendas.
2. Cold War had already worsened the world order which heightened rivalry between the superpowers and increased the tension worldwide.
3. Many newly independent and decolonized countries of Asia and Africa region came into the International Arena and took membership of the UN.

Question 5.
Explain any four objectives of the Non-Alignment Movement. (Delhi 2012)
Answer:
The four objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement were :

1. To mediate between the two rival alliances for the cause of peace and stability and refraining member countries from joining military blocs.
2. To take measures for the economic development of the third world countries i.e. newly decolonized countries.
3. To enable newly decolonized countries to pursue independent policies.
4. To draft a policy aiming at the strengthening of independence, ending of colonialism and promoting world peace.

Question 6.
What is the rationale of the Non-Aligned Movement after the end of the Cold War? (Delhi 2011)
Answer:
The rationale of the Non-Aligned Movement after the end of the Cold War was based on a recognition that decolonized states shared a historical affiliation. They can become a powerful force if they come together.

This meant that very small and poor countries need not become followers of any big power, instead, they could also adopt an independent foreign policy.

Another important rationale behind the movement was based on a resolve to democratize the international system to redress existing inequalities also.

Question 7.
How is Non-Alignment different from ‘neutrality’ or ‘equidistance’? (Delhi 2011)
OR
How was Non-Alignment neither isolation nor neutrality towards international affairs? (All India 2008)
Answer:
NAM provided a third option or an alternative to bipolarity. It was different from ‘neutrality’ and equidistance in the following way:

1. Newly independent countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America used NAM as a platform to raise their voice.
2. NAM as a policy of Non-Alliances should not be equated with isolationism. NAM sought active involvement in world affairs.
3. India with the Non-aligned countries participated in the mediating process of resolving the crisis between the rival alliances. Their positive attributes were the unity they forged amongst themselves and they resolve to maintain distance from superpowers despite the attempt by the two superpowers to bring them into their alliance.

Question 8.
Explain any four important events of the Cuban Missile Crisis, (All India 2010)
Answer:
The four important events that took place during the Cuban Missile Crisis were :

1. In 1962, the USSR installed its missiles in Cuba. It intended to convert Cuba into Russian missile base.
2. America became aware of the intentions of Russia. As a warning, it ordered American warships to intercept Soviet ships moving to Cuba.
3. The US was feared of developing nuclear weapons on part of the USSR to challenge the supremacy of the US.
4. The World was divided into two power blocs to expand their own spheres of influence in the world.

Question 9.
What was India’s response to the Cold War? Explain. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
In response to the Cold War, India adopted a two-pronged strategy to combat it. These were :

1. Firstly, it stayed away from the power blocs and their influence.
2. Secondly, it criticized those countries which were newly independent and subsequently becoming allies of the two power blocs.

India was actively pursuing the task of slowing down of the Cold War rivalries through the instrument of Nans India chose those regions which were neglected by both superpowers to seek an end to Cold War rivalry. Those regions later became a part of what Nehru envisaged was a ‘commonwealth of the cooperating nations’.

Question 10.
Why were most of the Non-Aligned countries categorized as an LDCs (Least Developed Countries)? (Delhi 2010,2008)
Answer:
The term Least Developed Countries (LDCs) was created during the Cold War era. The Non-Aligned countries were those which were not aligned with any superpower blocs. These were the newly decolonized countries and were very poor. After achieving independence, they looked upon the developed countries for initiating the process of economic development.

These countries were far behind the countries of the first and ’second world in terms of economic growth and development.
The countries, which come under the LDC category are the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Strikingly, these were the countries which were under foreign rule for decades. They rose to the center stage in the wake of NAM becoming influential.

Question 11.
Mention any four realities that have changed world politics after the Cold War. (All Indio 2008)
Answer:
The world was restructured after the Cold War. Following were the four realities that changed world politics after the Cold War

1. The Cold War ended with the disintegration of the USSR in 1991 which led to the emergence of 12 independent republics carved out of the then USSR which eventually made the Common Wealth of the Independent States (CIS).
2. The Cold War had divided the Berlin in the very beginning, however, with the end of the Cold War, the Berlin wall collapsed, which unified Germany and Berlin became the capital of United Germany.
3. The significant reality in the post-Cold War era, which the world witnessed was the ending of bipolarity and emergence of the USA as the sole superpower which eventually demanded an end to an arms race.
4. The US made the capitalist economy as the new dominant model of an economic system which led to the near death of communism.

Question 12.
What is the New International Economic Order (NIEO)? What role was played by it in changing NAM into an economic pressure group? (Delhi (C) 2008)
Answer:
NIEO was a set of proposals put forward during the 1970s by some developing countries through the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to promote their interests by improving their conditions in international trade.

The need for the NIEO lies in the fact that the developing countries had to go for sustained development to remove the tag of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) on them.

Gradually, the concern of the Non-Alignment Movement changed to give greater importance to economic issues. In 1961, at the first summit of NAM at Belgrade, economic issues had not been very important. By the mid-1970s, they had become the most important issues. As a result, NAM became an economic pressure group.

Question 13.
What is meant by the Arenas of the Cold War? Highlight the role played by the Cold War in avoiding another World War? (Delhi (C) 2008)
Answer:
Arenas of the Cold War were the areas where the Cold War-driven crisis took place. The Cold War led to several shooting wars and confrontations. Huge military build-ups combined with failed diplomacy between the superpowers worsened the situation.

The USA and the USSR came in direct confrontations in Korea (1950-53), Berlin (1958-62), the Congo (the early 1960s) and in other places.

Cold War played an important role in avoiding another World War. The reason behind the Cold War avoided World War like the situation is the logic of deterrence. It means when both the sides have a capacity to retaliate against each other and each side has the capacity to ruin the other to such an extent that no country can initiate a war.

6 Marks Questions

Question 1.
How far is it correct to say the international alliances during the Cold War era were determined by the requirements of the superpowers and the calculations of the smaller states? Explain. (HOTS; Delhi 2016)
Answer:
To a large extent, it is correct to say that the International alliance during the Cold War era were determined by the requirements of the superpower. It is justified from the following points :

1. The smaller states decided to an alliance with the two superpowers because they were promised protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals. Hence, this led to a division of the world into two camps.

2. The countries which sided with the US came to know as a Western alliance and those who backed USSR were known as Eastern alliance. The Western alliance countries organized themselves into an organization known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). It came into existence in April 1949. It was an association of twelve states which declared that armed attack on any one of them in Europe or North America would be regarded as an attack on all of them.

The Eastern Alliance, on the other hand, known as the Warsaw Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. It was created in 1955 and its principal function was to counter NATO’s forces in Europe.

3. Europe became the bone of contention between the superpowers. They also used their military power to bring countries into their respective alliances. For example, the Soviet Union used its influence in Eastern Europe just to ensure that the Eastern half of Europe remained within its sphere of influence.

4. The United State built an alliance system called the South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) in East and South East Asia and in West Asia (Middle East). To counter this, the Soviet Union and communist China responded by having close relations with regional countries such as North Vietnam, North Korea, and Iraq.

Question 2.
Why was the end of the Second World War considered to be the beginning of the Cold War? Explain. (All India 2016)
Answer:
The end of the Second World War was considered to be the beginning of the Cold War because it led to the rise of two major centers of power. It paved the way for the Cold War Era. The Second World War came to an end with the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (the two Japanese cities). It led to the withdrawal of Japan from the war. The dropping of the bomb by the US was criticized as well as support.

According to the critics of this decision, the USA was aware of the surrender of Japan hence dropping the bomb was not necessary. They argue that the US action was intended to stop the Soviet Union from making military and political gains in Asia and elsewhere and to show Moscow that the United States was supreme. The supporters of the decision claim that the dropping of the bomb was a necessary step to end the war quickly and to stop further loss of American and allied lives.

The consequence of this was the rise of two new powers on the global stage. With the defeat of Germany and Japan, the devastation of Europe and in many other parts of the world, the United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest powers in the world.

Question 3.
Describe any three reasons for the superpowers to have military alliances with smaller countries during the Cold War period. (Delhi 2015)
OR
What is Cold War? Why did the superpower depend on a military alliance with smaller countries? (Delhi 2012)
OR
What was the Cold War? Why did the superpowers need any allies during the Cold War? (Delhi (C) 2008)
Answer:
The Cold War was the tense relationship between the US and the USSR and their allies which emerged after the Second World War. The outbreak of the Cold War was due to the different ways of thinking i.e. Socialism and Capitalism. This war was unlike other wars in which the two sides never clashed directly in battle. The fear that a relationship would end in the nuclear war did not materialize.

The USA and the USSR were the superpowers of the world. They exercised tremendous political, economic and military powers at their disposal.
The reasons due to which superpowers should have military alliances with small countries were :

1. They entered into military alliances with smaller countries to spread their ideas and to propagate their ideologies to checkmate the other.
2. The small countries were economically retarded, they easily got accommodated into their military plan.
3. Also having a large number of smaller countries in one’s camp boosted the balance of power towards a particular bloc.
4. To gain access to their vital resources such as oil and minerals.

Question 4.
Suppose there had been no Cold War, how would that situation have affected India’s foreign policy? (All India 2015)
Answer:
The situation must have created the differences :
1. The spirit of Panchsheel (Peaceful coexistence) would have been endangered due to India’s unsafe condition after the Second World War, her existence could have been divided into many units. In addition, there were issues of shortage of food grain supply, industrial supply for the development of industries. In this case, India must have gone either into isolation or would have joined any superpower camp. India would have been a member of NATO or Warsaw Pact.

2. India must have added some better strategies to its foreign policy. If the situation had not been as it was, UNO and other institutions would not have been created. New strategies would have been framed for the existence of India.

3.  Self-sufficiency has been achieved by India. If Non-Alignment was followed strictly, India has been self-sufficient.

Question 5.
How did the ‘New International Economic Order’ come into being? Which reforms were proposed by UNCTAD in its report in 1972? Delhi 2015,2012; (All Indio 2008)
OR
Evaluate the New International Economic Order of the 1970s, (AH India 2009)
Answer:
The idea of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) was in direct response to the poor economic development in third world countries.

They were stereotyped as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) by the advanced countries because of their state of being under-developed. Achieving economic independence was the goal of these countries and this was precisely the reason for the establishment of the NIEO.

Recognizing the right of the LDCs to develop their economies, the United Nations Conference to Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in its report titled ‘Towards a New Trade Policy for Development in 1972/ proposed a reform of the global trading system.
The reforms were :

1. To give autonomy to LDCs so that they can have control over their natural resources.
2. To provide LDCs access to Western markets so that the LDCs could sell their products and hence trade could become profitable for them.
3. Western countries should reduce the cost of technology imported to LDCs.
4. LDCs should be given a greater role in international economic institutions.

Gradually, the nature of Non-Alignment changed to give greater importance to economic issues. In 1961 at the first summit, economic issues were not very important. By the mid-1970s, they had become the most important issues. Thus, NAM became an economic pressure group.

Although, these reforms sent alarm-bells in the ears of the developed countries, however, they could not sustain the pressure of economic development from the LDCs. This led to the fading of NIEO in the 1980s. It should be noted that the Nop-Aligned countries maintained unity in the initial phase of the Nans

Question 6.
Describe the role played by India in keeping the Non-Aligned Movement alive and relevant. (Delhi 2015)
OR
Assess India’s role in Non-aligned movement, (AH India 2009)
Answer:
The Non-aligned Movement aimed at establishing a new and equitable international economic, social and political order. Non-aligned countries played a role in reducing Cold War conflicts and averting some serious crisis. For example, Jawaharlal Nehru, one of the key leaders of the NAM played a crucial role in mediating between the two Koreas thereby resolving the arousal of conflicts.

Furthermore, India adopted the policy of NAM/Instead of joining one of the superpower blocs, it acted as a mediator between two rival alliances. India did so for the cause of peace and stability. India raised the voice against the newly decolonized countries of becoming part of these alliances.

Some examples where India exercise the policy of NAM by taking an independent decision are as follows:

• India led the world protest against Britain when Britain attacked Egypt over the Suez Canal issue in 1956 and
• The bold decision of India refusing to sign the NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) in 1968.

India also helps in taking measures for the economic development of the third world, non-aligned, newly decolonized countries to enable them to pursue independent policies.
Thus, India played an active role in keeping the Non-aligned Movement alive and relevant.

Question 7.
‘Non-Aligned Movement has become irrelevant today’. Do you agree with the statement? Support your answer with any three suitable agreements. (HOTS; All Indio 2014)
OR
What is the relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement after the end of the Cold War? Explain, (AH India 2012)
OR
Analyze the relevance of the Non- Aligned Movement (NAM) in the unipolar world. Explain. (All Indio 2010)
Answer:
NAM which emerged as the alternative to the partisan politics of the first and second world was based on the idea of mutual understanding and mutual cooperation among member countries.

The main objective with which NAM was created was to safeguard the identity of the third world countries who were used as pawns by the superpowers in the power game which was the product of the Cold War and its cumulative effects.

The superpowers looked at NAM with disgust, but for the third world countries, it was an important platform protecting the integrity of the third world countries. NAM during the Cold War era softened the Cold War rivalries and contained the further worsening of the Cold War situation.

The role of NAM became more pronounced after the disintegration of the USSR in 1991-USA came out as the single superpower and thus, the world became unipolar. With the downfall of the socialist camp, the Cold War rivalry lessened.

No, I do not agree that the Non-Aligned movement has become irrelevant today. It has not become outdated. It is due to the following reasons:

1. Its members are still bound by the common history and common objectives like economic development of the least developed countries.
2. NAM members seek economic aid from the developed countries so that the undeveloped countries can use it into economic prosperity.
3. The members of NAM are anti-colonialist and anti-communist. Their main motives were to emphasis on the rights of nations and materialization of peace and security through participation in resolving international issues.

Question 8.
Explain the Eastern and Western alliances during the Cold War period. Name any two European countries from amongst the following which was not members of these alliances France, Poland, Sweden, Spain, Austria, Romania (All Indio 2012)
Answer:
The two superpowers i.e. the USA and the USSR were keen to expand their spheres of influence in different parts of the world. Hence, the world was sharply divided between the two alliance systems.

These were the Eastern Alliance and the Western alliance. The countries which were part of these two alliances were smaller states who got the promise of protection, weapons, and economic aid against their local rivals. Therefore, these alliance systems threatened to divide the entire world into two camps. Most countries of Western Europe sided with the US and those of Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp.

Description of these two alliance is given below :

1. The Eastern alliance or the Warsaw Pact was led by the Soviet Union. It was created in 1955 and its principal function was to counter NATO’s forces in Europe.
2. The Western alliance was formed into an organization, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The alliance sided with the US. It came into existence in April 1949 and was an association of twelve states. It declared that armed attack on any one of them in Europe or North America would be regarded as an attack on all of them.

The two countries which were not members of these alliances were Sweden and Austria.

Question 9.
Explain any six factors which helped the Soviet Union in becoming a superpower after the Second World War. (Delhi 2012)
OR
Analyze any six factors which helped the Soviet Union in becoming a superpower after the Second World War. (All India 2010)
Answer:
The six factors which helped the Soviet Union in becoming a superpower after the Second World War era are :

• East European countries came under the control of USSR.
• Their political and economic systems were modeled after USSR.
• USSR emerged as a leader of socialist bloc countries.
• The Soviet Union has complex communication networking, vast energy resources-oil, iron, and steel machinery.
• Production and improvement of the transport sector.
• USSR’s domestic consumer industry produced everything from Pins to Cars.
• Ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens.
• Government subsidized basic necessities including health, education, children and other welfare schemes.
• No unemployment.
• State ownership over land and productive assets.

Question 10.
What led to the emergence of a bipolar world? What were the areas of Cold War between the two blocks? (Delhi 2011; All Indio 2011)
Answer:
The reasons for the emergence of a bipolar world were :

• Both the superpowers i.e. the US and USSR were keen to expand their spheres of influence in different parts of the world.
• The smaller countries decided to join either of the alliances in order to get protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals.
• The enhanced system threatened to divide the entire world into two camps.

Arenas were the areas where the Cold War-driven crisis took place. The Cold War led to several shooting wars and confrontations. The USA and the USSR came in direct confrontations in Korea (1950-53), Berlin (1958-62), the Congo (the early 1960s) and in other places. It was against this background that the Non-Aligned Movement played a crucial role.

Question 11.
What is meant by isolationism, neutrality, and Non-Alignment? Examine the growth of Non-Aligned Movement. (All indin 2010)
Answer:
Isolationism It is the policy or doctrine of isolating one’s country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, international agreements, etc; seeking to devote the entire efforts of one’s country to its own development.

Neutrality It is the policy or status of a nation that does not participate in a war between other nations. It is a concept opposed to a state of war.

Non-Alignment is a concept aiming at an independent and peaceful co-existence. It believes in non-involvement in tensions and possible conflicts between power blocs.

Non-Alignment It grew into a popular international movement. Various countries of the world having different interests joined it. In spite of the heterogeneous character of NAM, it has made an important contribution to development. A vast majority of NAM members had suffered untold humiliation and suffering under the imperialist domination. But as they were free nations now, they wanted to assert themselves and to charter their own cause of action. Non-Aligned Movement gave recognition to the smaller countries to have their foreign policy instead of following big powers.

Passage-Based Questions

Question 1.
Study the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow All India 2017 The smaller states in the alliances used the link to the superpowers for their own purposes. They got the promise of protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals, mostly regional neighbors with whom they had rivalries. The alliance systems led by the two superpowers, therefore, threatened to divide the entire world into two camps. This division happened first in Europe. Most countries of Western Europe sided with the US and those of Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp. That is why these were also called the ‘Western’ and the ‘Eastern’ alliances.
(i) Name one organization each related to the ‘Western’ and the ‘Eastern’ alliances.
(ii) Why were the smaller states interested in joining the super alliances?
(iii) How did the ‘alliance system’ threaten to divide the world?
Answer:
(i) NATO has been related to the ‘Western’ alliance and Warsaw was related to the ‘Eastern’ alliance.
(ii) Smaller states were interested to join super alliances because they got the promise of protection, weapons, and economic aid against their local rivals.
(iii) ‘Alliance system’ threatened to divide the world by dividing the entire world into two camps Soviet and US or socialist and capitalist.

Question 2.
Read carefully the passage given below and answer the following questions (Delhi 2015)
The Cold War was not simply a matter of power rivalries, military alliances and of a balance of power. These were accompanied by a real ideological conflict as well, a difference over the best and most appropriate way of organizing political, economic, and social life all over the world.
(i) Why is a war-like situation called the Cold War?
(ii) Identify one military pact each signed by each of the two superpowers to balance the power rivalries.
(iii) Differentiate between the ideologies represented by rival blocs.
Answer:
(i) The Cold War referred to the competition, the tensions and a series of confrontations between the two power blocs i.e. the USA. and the Soviet Union.
(ii) The Western alliance also known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) came into existence in April 1949. It was a group of twelve states.
(iii) The ideology of the USA was liberal democracy and capitalism whereas the ideology of the Soviet Union was of socialism and communism.

Question 3.
Study the passage given below and answer the questions that follow (All India 2013)
The two superpowers were keen on expanding their spheres of influence in different parts of the world. In a world sharply divided between the two alliance systems, a state was supposed to remain tied to its protective superpower to limit the influence of the other superpower and its allies Most countries of Western Europe sided with the U.S. and those of Eastern Europe joined the Soviet camp.
(i) Name the two superpowers.
(ii) Why did the allies want to remain tied with one of the superpowers?
(iii) Why did the superpowers want to bring other countries into their camps?
Answer:
(i) The two superpowers the USA and USSR.
(ii) Allies wanted to remain with one of the superpowers to stand still in the world economy and get the benefits in case of emergency or trade purpose.
(iii) The superpowers want to bring other countries into their camps just to control them and to spread their influence.

Value Based Questions (VBQs)

Question 1.
Analyze any three points of criticism and any three core values and enduring ideas related to the Non-Aligned Movement. (Delhi 2010; All India 2010)
Answer:
India’s Policy of Non-Alignment could not escape criticism. Here are two major criticisms:

1. Non-Alignment was seen as unprincipled because India was unable to communicate its ideas clearly to the world. On many occasions, India did not rise above to take a solid stand on world issues.
2. India took contradictory postures which were highly inconsistent with its foreign policy. For instance, India’s Treaty of Friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years was considered as the violation of the principles of the Nans
3. During the Bangladesh crisis also India developed good relations even with the US in the name of diplomatic and military support.

However, Non-Alignment contained some core values and enduring ideas. These were :

1. Cooperation among member nations.
2. Historical affiliation among colonized states and they too can become a powerful force if come together.
3. It has also based on a resolve to democratize the international system by thinking about an alternative world order to redress existing inequalities.

Map-Based Question

Question 1.
Study the political outline map of the world given below in which six different countries have been marked as (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6). Identify these countries and name them. Also classify them as First World, Second World, and Third World countries. Write your answer in the Answer-Book as per the following format (Delhi 2011)

Answer:

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NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Chapter 10 Gravitation are part of NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science. Here we have given NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 10 Gravitation.

NCERT Exemplar Class 7 Science Solutions Chapter 10 Gravitation

Multiple Choice Question

Question 1.
Sometimes when we do heavy exercise, anaerobic respiration takes place in our muscle cells. What is produced during this process?
(a) Alcohol and lactic acid
(b) Alcohol and C02
(c) Lactic acid and C02
(d) Lactic acid only
Solution:
(d) When we do heavy exercise our body does not get enough oxygen to produce the required energy. To get additional energy, anaerobic respiration occurs within our muscle cells. In this process, there occurs partial breakdown of glucose to produce lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid in the body causes muscular cramps.

Question 2.
Yeast is used in wine and beer industries because it respires
(a) aerobically producing oxygen
(b) aerobically producing alcohol
(c) anaerobically producing alcohol
(d) anaerobically producing C02.
Solution:
(c) Yeast (fungi) respires anaerobically and yields ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Due to the production of ethyl alcohol, yeasts are used in brewing industry. This process of anaerobic respiration in yeasts is called as fermentation.

Question 3.
During the process of exhalation, the ribs move
(a) down and inwards
(b) up and inwards
(c) down and outwards
(d) up and outwards.
Solution:
(a) During exhalation, the diaphragm moves up and ribs move downwards and inwards, decreasing the space in the chest cavity, this increases the air pressure inside the lungs and forces the air out of the lungs.

Question 4.
Breathing is a process that
(i) provides 02 to the body
(ii) breaks down food to release energy
(iii) helps the body to get rid of C02
(iv) produces water in the cells.
Which of the following gives the correct combination of functions of breathing?
(a) (i)and(ii)
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
Solution:
(c) Breathing means taking in air rich in oxygen and giving out air rich in carbon dioxide with the help of respiratory organs. The taking in of oxygen-rich air into the body is called inhalation and giving out of carbon dioxide – rich air is known as exhalation.

Question 5.
Fish breathe with the help of gills which are richly supplied with blood vessels. The gills help the fish to
(a) take in oxygen from air
(b) take in oxygen dissolved in water
(c) absorb nutrients present in water
(d) release waste substances in water.
Solution:
(b) Fish use gills for exchange of gases. Gills are made up of a large number of filaments, richly supplied with thin blood vessels called capillaries. As water enters through the mouth it flows over the gills. The blood in the capillaries absorbs oxygen dissolved in water, and gives out carbon dioxide into the water.

Question 6.
Earthworms and frogs breathe through their skin because of which the skin of both the organisms is
(a) moist and rough
(b) dry and rough
(c) dry and slimy
(d) moist and slimy.
Solution:
(d) The skin of the earthworm and the frog feels moist and slimy on touching. It is because in earthworms and frogs, exchange of gases takes place by diffusion through the moist body surface.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 7.
Mark the following statements as True or False. Correct the false statements.
(a) Oxygen breaks down glucose outside the cells of organisms.
(b) Frogs can breathe through their skin as well as lungs.
(c) Insects have spiracles on the lower surface of the body.
(d) Exhaled air has more percentage of CO2 than inhaled air.
Solution:
(a) False. Oxygen breaks down glucose inside the cells of organisms.
(b) True
(c) False. Insects have spiracles on the sides of the body.
(d) True

Question 8.
Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
(a) The roots of a plant take up oxygen from the ____ trapped between the particles.
(b) Diaphragm forms the ____ of the chest cavity.
(c) Exchange of gases in the leaves takes place with the help of ____.
(d) Cockroaches breathe with the help of air tubes called ____.
Solution:
(a) air, soil
(b) floor
(c) stomata
(d) tracheae

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 9.
Pick the odd-one-out from each of the groups given below on the basis of respiratory organs. Give reason for your answer.
(a) Cockroach, grasshopper, snail, ant
(b) Lizard, cow, earthworm, snake
(c) Crocodile, whale, dolphin, fish
(d) Snake, tadpole, crow, goat
Solution:
(a) Snail is the odd one out. It is because cockroach, grasshopper and ant are all insects, which respire by means of tracheae, whereas most snails respire though gills.
(b) Earthworm is the odd one out because it respires through the skin by the process of diffusion, whereas lizard, cow and snake respire through lungs.
(c) Fish is the odd one out because fish respire through gills, whereas crocodile, whale and dolphin respire through lungs.
(d) Tadpole is the odd one out because it respires through gills, whereas snake, crow and goat respire through lungs.

Question 10.
Which gas present in air is essential for aerobic respiration? What is the role of oxygen during respiration?
Solution:
Oxygen present in air is essential for aerobic respiration.
With the help of oxygen organic food is completely oxidised into carbon dioxide and water to release energy.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
+ Energy

Question 11.
On an average, an adult human being at rest breathes 15-18 times per minute. The breathing rate, however, may differ under different conditions. Arrange the following activities given in the box in order of increasing breathing rates and give reason for your answer.
[ Sleeping, Cycling, Brisk walk. Watching T.V. ]
Solution:
Sleeping < Watching T.V. < Brisk walk < Cycling
Breathing rate changes according to the requirement of oxygen by the body. It slows down when a person is taking complete rest. Whenever a person does any activity, the breathing rate becomes faster. It further increases with strenuous work to provide more oxygen to the cells to get more energy.

Question 12.
On a very cold morning, Boojho and Paheli were talking with each other as they walked down to their school. They observed that the air coming
out of their mouth looked like smoke. They were amused and wondered how it happened. Help them find the answer.
Solution:
On a cold day, the warm and moist air exhaled by us condenses into mist when it comes in contact with the cold air of the atmosphere. This looks like white smoke.

Question 13.
Whenever we feel drowsy or sleepy, we start yawning. Does yawning help us in any way?
Solution:
During drowsiness, our breathing rate 1 slows down. The lungs do not get enough
oxygen from the air resulting in yawning. Yawning brings extra oxygen into the lungs and removes more carbon dioxide and thus, helps us to keep awake.

Question 14.
Insects and leaves of a plant have pores through which they exchange gases with the atmosphere. Can you write two points of differences between these pores with respect to their position, number and extension into the body?
Solution:
Spiracles in insects and stomata on leaves of a plant are pores through which gaseous exchange takes place. Differences between spiracles and stomata on the basis of their position, number and extension into body are as follows:
(i) Spiracles are present on the sides of insects’ body while stomata are present on the lower surface of leaves.
(ii) Spiracles are fewer in number as compared to stomata.
(iii) Spiracles lead to an extensive network of tracheal system which is absent in the leaves.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 15.
Paheli participated in a 400 m race competition held at her school and won the race. When she came home she had mixed feelings of joy and pain as she had cramps in her leg muscles. After a massage she was relieved of the pain. Answer the following questions related to the situation.
(a) What can be the possible reasons for the pain in her legs?
(b) Why did she feel comfortable after a massage?
Solution:
(a) The pain in her legs could be due to the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. During heavy exercise or running etc. our body does not get enough oxygen to produce the required energy. To get the additional energy, the muscle cells respire anaerobically. During this process, partial breakdown of glucose occurs to produce lactic acid which on accumulation causes muscle cramps.
(b) The massage gave her relief because it improves the circulation of blood resulting in increased supply of oxygen to the muscle cells which helps in complete breakdown of lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water.

Question 16.
Observe figure 10.1 carefully and answer the following questions.

(a) In which jar, will the amount of C02 be the highest and why?
(b) In which jar, will the amount of C02 be the lowest and why?
Solution:
(a) Jar ‘C’ will have the highest amount of C02. It is because the mice kept in the jar will exhale C02 continuously by breathing and thus, increasing its amount in the bell jar.
(b) Jar A’ will have the least amount of COz. It is because in this jar, C02 released during respiration by the plant is used during photosynthesis.

Question 17.
Observe figure 10.2 carefully and answer the following questions.

(a) Which process is being tested in the activity?
(b) What is the result of the activity? Give reasons.
Solution:
(a) Release of carbon dioxide during exhalation is being tested in the given activity.
(b) The lime water in test tube ‘B’ turns milky but water in test tube A’ remains unchanged. It is because C02 is present in the exhaled air, and when it mixes with lime water in test tube ‘B’, the lime water turns milky.

Question 18.
A food stall owner was preparing dough for making bhaturas. He added a pinch of yeast and sugar to the dough and left it in a warm place. After few hours, the dough had risen. There was a sour smell too.
(a) Why did the dough rise?
(b) Why did the dough smell sour?
(c) Why was sugar added to the dough?
(d) What would have happened if the dough was kept in the refrigerator, soon after it was prepared?
Solution:
(a) Yeast undergoes anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen) and produces ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The C02 released during respiration by the yeast results in the rise of dough.
(b) Production of alcohol during anaerobic respiration by yeast results in sour smell.
(c) Sugar acts as food for yeast.
(d) At low temperature, yeasts will not multiply and respire because of which the dough will not rise and will not become sour which is required for making bhatums.

Question 19.
Observe the figures given as figure 10.3 (A) and (B) and answer the following.

(a) Which of the figures A or B indicates the process of inhalation and which the process of exhalation?
(b) In the figure label the arrows and indicate the direction of
(i) movement of air
(ii) movement of diaphragm
(iii) movement of ribs
Solution:
(a) Figure A’ indicates inhalation and figure ‘B’ indicates exhalation.

Question 20.
Match the names of organisms in column I with their organs of breathing in column II.

Solution:
(a) (iii)
(b) (iv)
(c) (i)
(d) (ii)

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English Workbook Class 10 Solutions Integrated Grammar Practice 4 are part of English Workbook Class 10 Solutions. Here we have given CBSE Class 10 English Workbook Solutions Integrated Grammar Practice 4.

CBSE Class 10 English Workbook Solutions Integrated Grammar Practice 4

Question 1.
Given below are Reena’s notes from her trip to Fatehpur Sikri. Use this information to complete the paragraph by choosing the correct options.

Imperial city of Mughal empire between 1571-1584-built by Mughal emperor Akbar- buildings blend of Islamic and Hindu styles-general layout and concept: Islamic-actual buildings show Hindu influence especially Gujarat and Rajasthan

Fatehpur Sikri (a) __________ Mughal dynasty between 1571 and 1584. It (b) __________ Akbar, and is one of a kind. The buildings within Fatehpur
Sikri (c) __________ architectural traditions. Though the general layout of the buildings (d) __________, the actual buildings (mainly palaces), their ornate columns, arches, carving style, etc. (e) __________ Gujarat and Rajasthan.

(a) (i) was the Imperial city of the
(ii) is the Imperial city of the
(iii) was an Imperial city of
(iv) has been an Imperial city of the

(b) (i) was being built by the
(ii) has been built by
(iii) got built by the
(iv) was built by

(c) (i) are a blend of Islamic and Hindu
(ii) are blended with Islamic and Hindu
(iii) is blended of Islamic and Hindu
(iv) is a blend of Islamic and Hindu

(d) (i) i conforming to the Islamic styles of architecture
(ii) conforms to the Islamic style of architecture
(iii) in conforming to the Islamic style of architecture
(iv) are conforming to the Islamic style of architecture

(e) (i) show a Hindu influence specially that of
(ii) shows an Hindu influence specially from
(iii) showed the Hindu influence of
(iv) show a particular Hindu influence of

Answers:

(a) — (i) was the Imperial city of the
(b) — (iv) was built by
(c) — (i) are a blend of Islamic and Hindu
(d) — (ii) conforms to the Islamic style of architecture
(e) — (i) show a Hindu influence specially that of

Question 2.
Complete the passage by choosing the correct options from those given below.

Legends will tell you that flamingoes are (a) __________ ordinary visitors to Kutch. They were the honoured guests of King Lakho and he (b) __________ the hunting of flamingoes that (c) __________ to Kutch from various parts of the world every year to breed. For centuries the region (d) __________ a haven for this migratory bird. Flamingo City, an island in the middle of the Rann of Kutch, (e) __________ the world over as one of the biggest breeding grounds of the Greater Flamingo, (f) __________ with bodies of hundreds of flamingo chicks. The parents of these chicks (g) __________ the island due to tack of food.

(a) (i) no
(ii) not
(iii) just
(iv) an

(b) (i) has forbidden
(ii) forbade
(iii) forbidden
(iv) had forbidden

(c) (i) comes
(ii) are coming
(iii) came
(iv) come

(d) (i) has been
(ii) was
(iii) have been
(iv) is

(e) (i) knows
(ii) was known
(iii) are knows
(iv) known

(f) (i) is strewn
(ii) are strewn
(iii) strewn
(iv) has strewn

(g) (i) fled
(ii) have fled
(iii) has fled
(iv) are fled

Answers:

(a) — (i) no
(b) — (iv) had forbidden
(c) — (iii) came
(d) — (i) has been
(e)— (iv) known
(f) — (i) is strewn
(g) — (ii) have fled

Question 3.
Rearrange the following words and phrases to form meaningful sentences as shown. spent/ trying / years/ to perfect/ Elias Howe/ a sewing machine Elias Howe spent years trying to perfect a sewing machine.

• he/ that/ had been/ by / captured/ one night/ a tribe/ dreamed/ he
  1. One night he dreamed that he had been captured by a tribe.
• told/ would have to/ he/ he/ produce/ was/ in a day/ the sewing machine
  2. He was told he would have to produce the sewing machine in a day.
• speared/ could not/ if/ he/ would be/ he/ by/ the tribe
  3. If he could not, he would be speared by the tribe.
• suddenly/ he/ Howe/ as/ woke up/ to/ the solution/ saw/ his/ problem
  4. Howe saw the solution to his problem as he suddenly woke up.

Question 4.
Read the comic strip and complete the passage given below.

Neha asked Naina (a) _________ London. Naina replied that she had enjoyed herself only in parts as (b) _________ there. Then Neha wanted to know (c) _________ To this Naina replied that (d) _________ although (e) _________ it had rained a little less there.

Answer:

(a) if she enjoyed her holiday in London
(b) it was really very cold there
(c) if she had seen any of the famous places there
(d) she had seen a number of interesting places (e) she wished

Question 5.
Given below is a set of rules from the Rule Book of APM School, Jodhpur. Purnima, Head Girl of the school writes a set of instructions for the school notice board using these. Write the instructions for Purnima in Passive Voice in the space provided.

• Do not bring motorised vehicles to school
• Do not park your cycles at the entrance
• Return the library books within a week
• Do not walk in the front lawns
• Senior students should not go to the Primary Wing without permission.

Students are hereby informed that they (a) __________ as they do not have valid licences for driving as yet. They are also (b) __________ at the front entrance but must go to the cycle stand. The library books (c) __________ within a week of issue as other students may also require them. No student (d) __________ to walk about or run in the front lawn. Senior students (e) __________ to go to the Primary Wing without permission.
Answer:

(a) should not bring motorised vehicles to school
(b) not to park their cycles
(c) should be returned
(d) is allowed
(e) are not allowed

Question 6.
In the passage given below, one word has been omitted in each line. Write the missing word along with the word that comes before and the word that comes after it in your answer sheet against the correct blank number. Ensure that the word that forms your answer is underlined.

Two teenagers broke into / grocery shop (a) into a grocery
In 1984. The two boys located what they thought / the (b) thought was the
cash box, dragged it from the wall, / ran off. (c) wall, and ran
When the box started ringing loudly, / tried (d) loudly, they tried
hitting it / a heavy iron bar. Despite their (e) it with a.
attempts to stop / noise, they had to throw (f) stop the noise
the box away. They / stolen the burglar alarm. (g) They had stolen
Now they are / police custody. (h) are in police

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Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 7 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 7 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 History Chapter 7 Notes.

Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 7

During the Medieval Age, several social, economic and political development took place.

The Indian society was divided on the basis varnas. During the medieval period, gap between the rich and poor increased.

There were, however, several communities which did not follow rules laid down by the Brahmins. These included the tribes, nomads and settled communities.

Tribal Societies

• Tribes are people who do not follow norms laid down by society.
• Most of the tribes were dependant on agriculture. Others were herders or hunter-gatherers.
• Tribes were even nomadic and moved from one place to another.
• Many tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and other places which were difficult to reach. They preserved their culture and heritage through oral tradition.
• There were even clashes between tribes and powerful caste-based societies.
• Contemporary historians and travellers from medieval India hardly give any information about the tribes.
• Many of the tribes emerged as politically powerful groups through their areas of influence and activities varied.
• Some of the powerful tribes were Khokhar tribe in Punjab; Langahs and Arghuns in Multan; Gaddis in the Himalayas;
• Kolis and Berads of Gujarat; Gonds of Chhattisgarh, Bhil tribe in Central India, etc.
• The tribal societies underwent a change as a result of interaction with the Hindu and Islamic societies.

Pastoral Nomads

• The pastoral nomads moved from one place to another with their herd of animals.
• They survived on milk products and exchanged ghee, wool, etc. with farmers for grains, cloth, utensils, etc.
• The most important trader nomads were Banjaras. Their caravan was called ‘tanda’. Sultan Alauddin Khilji used Banjaras to move grain to the city markets.
• Pastoral tribes thus basically reared and sold animals like horses and cattle to the prosperous people.

Changes in Caste Structure of India

• In the fields of trade and agriculture, there emerged a multi-caste population in many villages on account of the spread of Islam.
• Sufi and Bhakti movement preached equality between different castes and religious groups.
• Inter-caste marriages started between Rajputs and Muslim nobles.
• With the growth of the economy, new jatis and varnas emerged.
• Many tribes became part of rule changes.

The Gonds

• Gonds were sometimes referred to by their tribal dialect, Gondi. They practised shifting cultivation.
• The Gonds rose when Delhi Sultanate declined.
• The Gond kingdom Gondwana in southeastern Madhya Pradesh was founded in the 15th century.

Ahoms

• The Ahom tribe is traced to some tribes living in south-east Asia who had travelled overland through the forests of Assam.
• The religion and culture of Assam is a fusion of the local traditions and of migrant tribes.
• The Ahoms belonged to a warrior class and built roads and irrigation system even before establishing their rule.
• The Ahoms formed the new kingdom by suppressing the older political system of Bhuiyans.

Tribal societies were absolutely different from those which existed in big cities.

Tribal societies did not follow the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the Brahmanas, because they divided societies into numerous unequal classes. These societies were known as tribes.

There was a unique bond of kinship among the members of each tribe.

Their main source of livelihood was agriculture. However, hunter-gatherers or herders were also there.

Some tribes were nomadic and kept on moving from one place to another.

A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly and divided these amongst households as per its own rules.

Many large tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.

Tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions which help historians to collect knowledge about them.

Tribal people were spread in almost every region of the subcontinent. Some powerful tribes controlled large territories.

In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important.

In Multan and Sind, the Languages and Arghuns dominated extensive regions.

The Balochis were found in the north-west.

The Shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalayas.

The north-eastern part of the subcontinent was dominated by the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.

The Mundas and Santals were important tribes found in Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and Bengal.

The Kolis were found in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat.

The Bhils were spread across western and central India.

The Gonds lived in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Nomadic pastoralists lived on milk and other pastoral products. The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads.

Smaller castes or jatis emerged with the growth of society. Smiths, carpenters and masons were recognised as separate jatis.

Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the 11th and 12th centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas, etc. Some of these had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs.

The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow.

The Gonds lived in a vast forested region known as Gondwana. They practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai. About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga.

Garha Katanga was a rich state. However, it was defeated by the Mughals. Despite that, the Gond kingdoms survived for some time.

The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century. They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).

During the 16th century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas and of Koch-Hajo and subjugated many other tribes. Thus, they built a large state. However, they faced many invasions from the south-west and finally, they were defeated by the Mughals.

Ahom society was divided into clans or Khels. The society was very sophisticated.

The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. However, in the reign of Sib Singh Hinduism became the predominant religion. But the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs.

Clan: A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. The tribal organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.

Nomads: People who keep on moving from one place to another.

Nomadic pastoralists: People who move over long distances with their animals.

Tanda: The caravan of the Banjaras was called tanda.

Itinerant Group: This group consists of craftspersons, peddlers and entertainers who travel from place to place practising their different occupations.

Shifting Cultivation: Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt. The crop is then sown in the ashes. After some time when this land loses its fertility, another patch of land is cleared and planted in the same manner.

1591 – Cheros were defeated.

1523 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of the Chaityas.

1581 – The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of Koch-Hajo.

1662 – The Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahonri kingdom.

1714-1744 – Sib Singh reigned the Ahom kingdom.

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Devotional Paths to the Divine Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 8 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 7 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given Devotional Paths to the Divine Class 7 History Chapter 8 Notes.

Devotional Paths to the Divine Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 8

In the eighth century, two new religious movements Sufism and Bhakti emerged.

Devotion to God without discrimination on the basis of caste was taught by the Bhakti and Sufi saints.

Both Sufism and Bhakti movements had several common traits and spread as popular movements at about the same time.

The Idea of a Supreme God

• Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to develop.
• The idea that all human beings are not equal at birth gained ground during this period.
• The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from bondage through devotion or bhakti emerged.
• Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.

A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

• The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious movement, led by Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
• The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village they visited and set them to music.
• The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines.

Philosophy and Bhakti

• Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the ultimate reality.
• Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

• Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the mid-12 century.
• They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.

The Saints of Maharashtra

• Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
• Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.

Islam and Sufism

• Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God. ‘
• It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat.
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
• The sought unison with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
• Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
• Sufism introduced many popular orders or silsilas of which the most widespread was the Shariat and Chisti Silsilas.
• The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long line of teachers included Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of
• Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.

New Religious Developments in North India

• The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti movement in North India.
• This wave was led by scholars like Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak
• This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
• A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung.
• Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless Supreme God with devotion as the path of salvation.
• Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of one God and nam-japna, kirti-kama and vand- chhakna.The number of
• Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the 16th century under his successors.
• Shankara was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God.

Various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements evolved since the eighth century.

Before the emergence of large kingdoms, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.

Several people also showed their interest in the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas.

Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God. Such people sought the path of Bhakti to approach this Supreme God. As a result, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga came to be recognised as supreme deities. People began to worship them through elaborate rituals.

The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including untouchables.

They criticised the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path of salvation.

Elaborate temples were built by the Chola and Pandya kings between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Thus, the Bhakti tradition got strongly linked with temple worship.

Shankara, a Bhakti saint, was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge.

Ramanuja, another Bhakti saint, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.

Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas were against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

The saint-poets of Maharashtra such as Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram inspired people through their songs in simple Marathi. These saints rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth. They also rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families.

Several other religious groups such as Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis also criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. They inspired people to lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it. They gave importance to yogasanas.

Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasized love and devotion to God and comparison towards all fellow human beings.

Islam propagated monotheism i.e. submission to one God. It rejected idol worship,

Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.

The Sufis too composed poems like the saint-poets. Some of the great Sufis were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.

The Sufi saints developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), rags (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers. The Chishti silsila is worth-mentioning in this regard.

The Sufi teachers held their assemblies in their Khanqahs or hospices (houses of rest for travellers). Here, they discussed spiritual matters.

Sufi shrines are visited by devotes of all backgrounds.

A new wave of Bhakti movement began in north India after the 13th century. This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of Bhakti and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another.

Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi, is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work.

Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna.

Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai were some other important saints of this tradition.

The works of these saints were composed in regional languages and therefore they became very popular.

We come to know about Kabir through his sakhis and pads, Kabir’s teachings were based on complete rejection of the major religious traditions. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through Bhakti or devotion.

Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God. He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teachings which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Words that Matter

Virashaivism: It was popular in Karnataka during the mid-twelfth century. Its followers argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.

Hagiography: Writing of saint’s lives.

Vilthala: A form of Vishnu.

Hospice: House of rest for travellers, especially one kept by a religious order.

Khanqah: It literarily means hospice.

Dargah: It is a tomb of a religious saint in Muslim community recognised as a pilgrimage.

Langer: A common kitchen where people of all backgrounds eat together.

Dharamsala: A sacred space created by Baba Guru Nanak.

Khaba Panth: The community of the Sikhs.

Bhakti: It means devotion to God.

Sufi: He was a Muslim mystic.

Silsila: A genealogy of Sufi teachers.

Salvation: Getting freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

Shariat: Holy law made by Muslim Scholars.

Gurmukhi: A new script introduced by Guru Nanak.

1469-1539 – The period of Baba Guru Nanak.

1539 – Baba Guru Nanak died.

1604 – Guru Arjan compiled all the compositions written by the three successors of Guru Angad.

1606 – Guru Arjan was executed.

1699 – The Khalsa was instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.

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CBSE Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 21 International Trade is part of Class 12 Geography Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given NCERT Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 21 International Trade.

Geography Class 12 Notes Chapter 21 International Trade

Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Exports

• During recent years, a change has been recorded in the composition of commodities in India’s international trade. There is a decline in the share of agriculture and allied products whereas shares of petroleum and crude products and other commodities have increased. The share of petroleum products has increased mainly because of the rise in petroleum prices and increase in the petroleum refining capacity of India.
• A huge decline is registered in the export of traditional items like, coffee, spices, tea, pulses, etc due to the tough international competition. Though an increase has been registered in floricultural products, fresh fruits, marine products and sugar, etc. But manufacturing sector alone accounted for 68% of India’s total value of export in 2010-11.
• The major competitors of India are China and other East Asian countries. Apart from this, the gems and jewellery are other commodities that have larger share in India’s international trade.

Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Import

• During 1950s and 1960s, India faced serious food shortage, thus the country had to import food grain, capital goods, machinery and equipments at large scale.
• The balance of payment was adverse as imports were more than export inspite of all the efforts of imports substitution.
• After 1970s, the success of green revolution discontinued the food grain import. But the energy crises of 1973 replaced the import of food grains by fertilizers and petroleum as the prices of petroleum had been raised.
• Besides, other imported goods were machine and equipment, special steel, edible oil and chemicals.
•  According to economic Survey 2011-12, petroleum products have registered a rapid increase in import goods.
• It is a raw material for petrochemical industries and also used as fuel. The increase signifies the tempo of rising industrialisation and improvement in standard of living.
• Periodic price rise of petroleum in the international market may be another reason for this increase.
• Import of capital goods like non-electrical machinery, transport equipment, manufactures of metals and machine tools registered a steady increase. This increase could be because of increasing demand in the export oriented industrial and domestic sectors.
• Import of food and allied products registered a decrease because of a sudden decline in imports of edible oils.
• Pearls and semi-precious stones, gold and silver, metalliferrous ores and metal scrap, non-ferrous metals, electronic goods, etc are other important items of India’s import.

Direction of Trade

• India is a trading partner with most of the countries and major trading blocks of the world.
• India has goal to double its share in international trade within the next 5 years. To achieve this objective, India has started to adopt suitable measures which includes import liberalisation, reduction in import duties, de-licensing and change from process to product patents.
• India has created an example in terms of percentage of Asia and ASEAN (Association of South-east Asian Nations) in total trade of world has increased. It was 33.3% in 2000-01 and it increased to 57.3% in the 2011-12 . In contrast to this, the share of Europe and America decreased from 42.5% to 30.8%. This has helped India to survive during the global crisis in Europe and America.
• With the development of India’s trade direction, India’s trading share with different countries also changed. During 2003 -04, USA was India’s largest trading partner. Now UAE has displaced USA as it was India’s largest trading partner during 2010-11.
• After UAE, China is the second largest trading partner with India continuing this position from 2008-09 to 2010-11. USA has sliped to third position.
• India’s foreign trade is mainly carried through oceanic and air routes. Foreign trade via land route is only limited to the neighbouring countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Sea ports as Gateways of International Trade

• India has a long history of international trade via sea ports as it has long coastline and is opened to sea from three sides. Water provides smooth surface and cheap transport without any hinderance.
• India has developed many ports on its coast. These ports are named with suffix ‘pattan’ meaning port. It is interesting to know that India has more sea ports on West coast than its East coast.
• After coming of the European traders and colonisation of the country by the British, the Indian ports have emerged as gateways of international trade.
• There are some parts which have very vast area of influence and some have limited area of influence.

Major and Minor ports

• At present, India has 12 major and 185 minor or intermediate ports. For major ports, central Government is responsible for deciding the policies and regulate their functions and for minor ports, State Government is responsible for the same functions stated above.
• A larger port of total traffic is handled by major ports, e.g. about 71% of the India’s oceanic traffic was handled by the the 12 major ports during 2008-09.
• The Britishers used these ports to export natural resources of India; particularly from their hinterland but this trend was discontinued after 1947.
• The India lost its two very important ports i.e. Karachi port to Pakistan and Chittagong port to Bangladesh (erstwhile East-Pakistan). But India recovered successfully from this loss by opening many new ports, for instance, Kandla in the West and the Diamond harbour near Kolkata on river Hugli in the East.
• Today, large volumes of domestic and international trade are handled by these Indian ports. Most of the ports are equipped with modem infrastructure.
• Previously, it was expected that government agencies are responsible for the development and modernisation of Indian ports. But it was considered that there is a need to increase the functions and bring these ports at par with the international ports. Thus, private entrepreneurs have been invited for the modernisation of ports in the country.
• The cargo handling capacity of Indian ports increased from 20 million tonnes in 1951 to more than 600tnillion tonnes at present.

Important Ports
Some of the Indian ports along with their hinterlands are as follows:
Kandla Port

• This port is situated at the head of Gulf of Kuchchh. The main objectives of this major port are to serve the needs of Western and North-Western ports of the country and also to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port.
• This port is mainly designed to receive large quantities of petroleum and petroleum products and fertilizers.
• To reduce the pressure at Kandla port, an offshore terminal named Vadinar has also been developed.
• Due to confusion in demarcation of the boundary, hinterland of one port may overlap with that of the other.

Mumbai Port

• This is a natural harbour and the biggest port of India.
• The location of this port is closer to the general routes from the countries of Middle East, Mediterranean Countries, North Africa, North America and Europe, where the major share of country’s overseas trade is carried out.
• This port is extended over a large area with the length of 20 km and width of 6-10 km with 54 berths and has the country’s largest oil terminal.
• The main hinterlands of this port are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Rajasthan.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port

• This satellite port is located at Nhava Sheva. It was developed to relieve the pressure at the Mumbai port.
• It is the largest container port in India.

Marmagao Port

• It is located at the entrance of the Zuari estuary which is a natural harbour in Goa. It gained significance after its remodelling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.
• Construction of Konkan railway extended its hinterland, e.g. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra constitute its hinterland.

New Mongalore Port

• It is mainly used to export iron-ore and iron concentrates, and other commodities like fertilizers, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yam, granite stone, molasses, etc.
• It is located in Karnataka which is its major hinterland.

Kochchi Port

• This port is popularly known as ‘Queen of the Arabian sea’.
• It is a natural harbour and situated at the head of Vembanad Koyal.
• Kochchi port is located close to the Suez-Colombo route.
• It serves the needs of Kerala, Southem-Kamataka, and South-Western Tamil Nadu.

Kolkata Port

• It is located on the Hugli river 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. This port was developed by the British as it was once the capital of British India.
• The port has lost its significance considerably on account of the diversion of exports to the other ports such as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and satellite port, Haldia.
• It is also facing the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli river, which hinders the link to the sea.
• Its hinterland covers Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
  Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim and the North-Eastern states.
• It also provides port facilities to our neighbouring land-locked countries such as Nepal and Bhutan.

Haldia Port

• It is located 105 km downstream from Kolkata.
• It has been constructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port.
• It handles bulk cargo like iron-ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and fertilizers, jute, jute products, cotton, and cotton yarn, etc.

Paradwip Port

• The port is located in the Mahanadi delta and it is about 100 km far from Cuttack.
• It has advantage of having the deepest harbour, thus it is best suited to handle very large vessels.
• It mainly handles large scale export of iron-ore.
• Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand constitute its hinterland.

Vishakhapatnam Port

• It is a land locked harbour situated in Andhra Pradesh.
• It is connected to the sea by a channel which is cut through solid rock and sand.
• To handle various commodities like iron-ore, petroleum and general cargo an outer harbour has been developed.
• Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterland for this port.

Chennai Port

• The artificial harbour of Chennai is one of the oldest ports on the eastern coast.
  It was built in 1859.
• Because of the shallow water near the coast, it is not suitable for large ships.
• Tamil Nadu and Puducherry constitute its hinterland.

Ennore Port

• This newly developed port, is situated 25 km north of Chennai.
• It was developed to minimise the pressure at Chennai port.

Tuticorin Port

• It is another port which was developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai port.
• This port handles a number of commodities like coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals and petroleum products.

Airports
Air transport plays a significant role in the international trade of a nation.
The advantages are follows:

1. Air transport is very useful for handling high value or perishable goods over long distance.
2. It takes less time to transport cargo.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. Air transportation is very costly.
2. It is not suitable for the transportation of heavy and bulky commodities.

Thus, having these disadvantages air transport is not/less preferred for international trade as compared to oceanic routes. At present, there are 12 international airports. They are; Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Bengalura, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kochchi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram. Apart from these, there are 112 domestic airports in India.

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The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 9 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 7 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 History Chapter 9 Notes.

The Making of Regional Cultures Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 9

The medieval period saw the emergence of several regional languages and the associated literature. It is quite common for us to identify a region with its language.

Every region is identified with a certain distinct type of food, clothing, poetry, dance, painting and music.

The Chera empire of Mahodayapuram, which was established in 9th century in the southwestern part of Kerala introduced the Malayalam language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

• In several regions, regional cultures developed around religious traditions.
• The local people made a wooden image of the deity which, originally a local God, came to be identified with Vishnu.
• Temple became the centre of pilgrimage.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

• In the 19th century, the Rajasthan of today was called Rajputana by the British.
• There are many groups who call themselves Rajputs in Northern and Central India.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was one such ruler.
• Women had been given a heroic image since they committed sati or self-immolation.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

• The heroic traditions of various regions also helped in the evolution of dance in several regions.
• One such dance was Kathak, which was evolved in Northern India. The Kathaks initially were a caste of story-tellers in North Indian temples.
• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasalila.
• It integrated folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
• Music also developed into various forms like qawwali and khayal and new instruments like Sitar were invented.

Paintings for Patrons: The Traditions of Miniatures

• During this period, one more tradition which deserves our attention is the miniature painting. Miniatures are small sized paintings done in watercolour on cloth or paper.
• Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan hired highly skilled painters to illustrate their manuscripts in the Kitab Khana containing their accounts and poetry.
• When the Mughal empire started declining, new artistic tastes developed in the regional court of Deccan and Rajput rulers.
• One bold style of miniature painting was called Basohli.
• One of the most popular paintings of the Himalayas region was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
• The Kangra artists by mid-18th century infused a new life into miniature painting.

The Growth of a Regional Language: Bengal

• Regional language is the language which a person speaks in a region.
• It is generally assumed that the Bengali language is spoken by people of Bengal.
• Bengali originated from Sanskrit but later on developed its own identity and literature.
• Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—The first includes translations from Sanskrit epics and the
• the second includes Nath literature.

Pirs and Temples

• From the 16th century, people migrated in large numbers from less fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy of south-eastern Bengal.
• With Mughal control over Bengal, the capital shifted to Dhaka. Officials received land grants. Mosques were set up.
• The early settlers got help from teachers called Pirs. They included saints or Sufis and prominent religious personalities.

Regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent.

The Chera Kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.

The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics.

In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannath at Puri, Orissa. The word Jagannath literarily means the lord of the world, a name for Vishnu.

Anantavarman, the ruler of the Ganga dynasty in the 12th century, built a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.

The Rajputs contributed a lot to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.

Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.

Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs. Women were also focused on these stories. They are depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death. They often chose to become sati on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Not only heroic traditions are found in different regions in different forms, but dance too. Just take the history of one dance form, Kathak.

The term kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for a story.

The Kathaks was originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who beautified their performances with gestures and songs.

Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Under the Mughals, it developed in two traditions or gharanas—one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Slowly and steadily it took root in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir etc.

Kathak was recognised as one of six classical forms of dance in the country after independence. Other classical dances are—Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Orissa), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) and Manipuri (Manipur).

The tradition of miniature painting is also noteworthy. Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in watercolour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.

The Mughal emperors patronised highly skilled painters.

With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states.

By the late 17th century a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli got developed in the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh. Here, the Mughal artists founded the Kangra school of painting.

Soft colours, including cool blues and greens, and lyrical treatment of themes distinguished Kangra painting.

Now we will see how Bengali, a regional language, grew in the course of time.

From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by Sultans. In 1586, Akbar conquered Bengal while Persian was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language.

Although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution.

Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories. The fist includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangala Kavyas and Bhakti literature such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the second includes Nath literature such as songs of Maynamati and Gopichand, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.

The cult of ptr (a spiritual guide) became popular in Bengal and their shrines can be found there.

A number of temples got constructed in Bengal. Now local deities began to be worshipped in temples.

Bengal, being in a riverine plain, produces abundant rice and fish. These two items are important foods of the Bengalis. The Bengal Brahmanas too eat fish.

Fishing has been a major occupation of the Bengalis.

Bengali literature contains several references to fish.

Lilatilakam: A fourteenth-century text of Sanskrit that deals with grammar and poetics.

Rajputana: The region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan was called Rajputana by the British during the 19th century.

Sati: The immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Kathak: The term is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for the story.

Rasa Lila: The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known as rasa Lila.

Gharana: Tradition of classical dance, music.

Classical: Old and memorable having permanent value.

Miniature: It is small-sized painting, usually done in watercolour on cloth or paper.

Basohli: It refers to the bold and intense style of miniature painting.

Per: It is a Persian word that means a spiritual guide.

Animism: Attribution of living soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena.

Kolu: Oil pressures.

Kansari: Bell metal workers.

Dochala: Double-roofed structure.

About 12th Century – First Literary works in Malayalam.

14th Century Lilatilakam – a text dealing with grammar and poetics combining two languages Sanskrit and regional languages was published.

12th Century – Anantavarman, a ruler of Ganga dynasty decided to erect a temple for Purushottam Jagannatha at Puri.

1230 AD – King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the ‘deputy’ of the God.

19th Century – The region of Rajputana constituted by the British.

3rd quarter of the 19th Century – ‘Kathak’ was firmly entrenched as a dance form in many regions.

1739 AD – Nadar Shah invaded and conquered Delhi.

Mid-18th Century – Kangra artists developed a style of miniature painting for their survival.

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Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 10 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 7 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7 History Chapter 10 Notes.

Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7 Notes Social Science History Chapter 10

By 1765, the British had captured major chunks of Indian territory in eastern India.

After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire started to decline because of weak and inefficient rulers.

States like Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal and states under the control of Sikhs and Marathas declared independence.

The declining power of the Mughals also gave rise to the regional powers like the Jats, Sikhs and Marathas.

The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

• After reaching its zenith, Mughal empire started declining under Emperor Aurangzeb. This was because of Aurangzeb’s military and religious policy which depleted the financial resources of the Mughals.
• Under his succession, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down. It became difficult to check governors and mansabdars.
• In the midst of this crisis, Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 and invasions of Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali between 1748-1761, weakened the Mughal empire.
• The nobility was divided into two major groups Iranis and Turanis. For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or the other of these two powerful groups.

The emergence of New States

• With the decline of Mughal authority, the governors consolidated their authority.
• Broadly speaking, the states were divided into three overlapping groups; old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and
• The Hyderabad States which enjoyed consideration independence like Watan Jagirs and several Rajput principalities and the last group included states like Marathas, Sikhs and the Jats.

The Old Mughal Provinces

• These included the states of Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
• Hyderabad state was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. The state was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas.
• Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan in 1722.
• The rich alluvial plains allowed the development of the region.
• Bengal was founded by Murshid Quli Khan. He commanded revenue administration of the state. Under Alivardi Khan the state became prosperous.

The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs

• Many Rajput Kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and Jodhpur had served under the Mughals with distinction.
• They got considerable autonomy and thus were called Watan jagir.
• Maratha expansion after the 1740s put a restriction on the growth of Rajput expansion.

Seizing Independence

The Sikhs

• The Sikh arose as a power under Guru Gobind Singh who inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited the Sikhs as a powerful group and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas

• The Maratha kingdom rose under Shivaji. After Shivaji’s death, Peshwa led the Maratha empire to its zenith.
• Marathas collected huge revenue from taxes of church and Sardshmukhi in the entire kingdom.
• Maratha chiefs included Peshwa, Sindhia, Gaekwad and Bhonsle. Their territory touched near Delhi in its peak stages.

The Jats

• Jats were powerful in areas near Delhi under the leadership of Churaman.
• They were prosperous agriculturalists.
• Under Suraj Mai, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
• Jats even built a garden palace at Dig.

With the decline of the Mughal Empire, new political groups began to emerge in the sub-continent during the first half of the 18th century.

The Mughal Empire lost its glory and started facing a variety of crises towards the closing years of the 17th century.

Emperor Aurangzeb is held responsible for this. He had depleted the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan.

Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down. Nobles appointed as governors became more powerful. They began to control the offices of revenue and military administration. This created a political and economic crisis.

The attack of Nadir Shah the ruler of Iran, on Delhi in 1739 aggravated the crisis. He plundered the city of Delhi and took away immense amounts of wealth.

Soon Ahmad Shah Abdali became active. He invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.

The competition amongst different groups of nobles further weakened the empire. These were two major groups or factions—the Iranis and Taranis (nobles of Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or the other of these two powerful groups.

Through the 18th century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent, regional states.

The states of the 18th century can be divided into three overlapping groups.

States that were old Mughal provinces such as Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.

States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughal as Watan jagirs,

States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats.

Hyderabad state (1724-1748) was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. He was one of the most powerful members at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. He was given the change of the Deccan. Soon he became powerful there and declared himself the actual ruler of that region. Although he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled independently.

The state of Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan in the year 1722. He did not like the Mughal influence in the Awadh region and therefore reduced the number of officeholders or jagirdars appointed by the Mughals. He also reduced the size of jagirs and appointed his own loyal servants to vacant positions.

Murshid Quli Khan took control of Bengal and began to command the revenue administration of the state. He transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa in order to reduce the Mughal influence in Bengal. He ordered a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal. Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars.

The Rajput Kings, of Amber and Jodhpur, were given permission by the Mughals, to enjoy considerable autonomy in their water jagirs. Soon, these rulers began to extend their control over adjacent regions.

Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa. They also tried to extend their territories by seizing portions of imperial territories neighbouring their watans. Nagpur was conquered and annexed to the housed of Jodhpur while Amber seized large portions of Bundi.

In the 18th century, the Sikhs organised themselves into a number of bands called jathas and later on mils. Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal Khalsa).

Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule. Their well-knit organisation enabled them to put up a successful resistance to the Mughal governors first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seized the rich province of the Punjab and the Sirhind from the Mughals. The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking in 1765.

The Sikh territories extended from the Indus to the Jamuna in the late 18th century but they were divided under different rulers such as Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Shivaji carried out the Maratha Kingdom. He built a powerful Maratha army and challenged the Mughals in the peninsula.

After the death of Shivaji, Peshwas took control of the Maratha Kingdom. Poona became its capital.

Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded and gradually chipped away at the authority of the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s the Maratha King was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.

After raiding Delhi in 1737, the frontiers of Maratha domination expanded rapidly into Rajasthan and Punjab in the north, into Bengal and Orissa in the east and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu countries in the south.

The jats consolidated their power during the late 17th and 18th centuries. Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi, and by the 1680s they had begun dominating the region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and Agra.

Subadar: Government of a province or state.

Diwani: The offices of revenue.

Faujdari: Military administration.

The Iranis and Taranis: Nobles of Turkish descent.

Coffers: Treasury.

Nayaks: Telugu warrior chiefs.

Jagirdari: Land ownership.

Ijaradars: Revenue farmers.

Watan Jagirs: States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals. Jathas. Bands

Misls: Small political groups of Sikh warriors.

Peshwa: Principal minister.

Chauth: 25% of the land revenue claimed by zamindars.

Sardishmukhi: 9-10% of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the Deccan. Subahdar Governorship of a province or state.

Later Mughals: The Mughal emperors who succeeded after Aurangzeb.

Kunbis: Maratha peasant-warriors.

1707 – Aurangzeb died.

1739 – Nadir Shah invaded Delhi.

1713-1719 – Farrukh Siyar reigned the Mughal Empire.

1754-1759 – Alamgir 11 reigned the Mughal Empire.

1724-1748 – Asaf Jah remained the Nizam of Hyderabad.

1722 – Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was appointed Subadar of Awadh.

1699 – The year in which Khalsa was instituted.

1708 – Guru Gobind Singh died.

1715 – Banda Bahadur was captured

1716 – Banda Bahadur was executed.

1799 – Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his capital at Lahore.

1627-1680 – The period of Shivaji.

1761 – Third battle of Panipat.

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