NCERT  Solutions For Class 12 Biology Biotechnology:Principles And Processes

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 Biotechnology:Principles And Processes:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1. Can you list 10 recombinant proteins which are used in medical practice? Find out where they are used as therapeutics (use the internet).
Ans: (i) Human insulin – Diabetes
(ii) Human growth hormone – Dwarfism cure
(iii) Blood clotting factor Y1H/IX-Haemophilia
(iv) TPA (tissue plasminogen activator) – Heart attack/strokes
(v) PDGF (platelet derived growth factor) – Stimulates wound healing.
(vi) Interferon – Treatment of viral infection.
(vii) Interlinking – Enhances immune reaction,
(viii) Hepatitis B vaccine – Prevention of infectious disease.
(ix) Herpes Vaccine – Prevention of infectious disease.
(x) DNase I – Treatment of cystic fibrosis.

2. Make a chart (with diagrammatic representation) showing a restriction enzyme, the substrate DNA on which it acts, the site at which it cuts DNA and the product it produces.
Ans: Name of the Restriction enzyme – Bam HI.
The substrate DNA on which it acts –

3. From what you have learnt, can you tell whether enzymes are bigger or DNA is bigger in molecular size? How did you know?
Ans: Both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and enzymes are macromolecules. DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides and enzymes are proteins hence these are polymers of amino acids. But DNA is bigger in molecular size as compared to proteins because synthesis of proteins is regulated by a small segment of DNA, called genes and also a large number of proteins can be synthesised by a DNA molecule.

4. What would be the molar concentration of human DNA in a human cell? Consult your teacher.
Ans: The molar concentration of DNA in human cell is 2 mg/ml of cell extract.

5. Do eukaryotic cells have restriction endonucleases? Justify your answer.
Ans: No, eukaryotic cells do not have restriction endonuclease because DNA molecules of eukaryotes are heavily methylated. All the restriction endonucleases have been isolated from various strain of bacteria.

6. Besides better aeration and mixing properties, what other advantages do stirred tank bioreactors have over shake flasks?
Ans: Shake flasks are used for growing and mixing the desired materials on a small scale in the laboratory. A large scale production of desired biotechnological product is done by using ‘bioreactors’. Besides better aeration and mixing properties, the bioreactors have following advantages
(i) Small volumes of cultures are periodically withdrawn from die reactor for sampling.
(ii) It has a foam control system, pH control system and temperature control system.
(iii) Facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability throughout the bioreactor.

7. Collect 5 examples of palindromic DNA sequences by consulting your teacher. Better try to create a palindromic sequence by following base-pair rules.
Ans: Palindrome nucleotide sequences in the DNA molecule are groups of bases that form the same sequence when read both forward and backward. Five examples of palindromic DNA sequences are as follows:
(i) 5′-—————GGATCC——————3’
3′—————CCTAGG—————–5′
(ii) 5’—————AAGCTT——————3′
3′——————TTCGAA —————-5′
(iii) 5′—————–ACGCGT—————–3′
3′——————TGCGGA————– 5′
(iv) 5′———- ACTAGT————3′
3′——————TGATCA————5′
(v) 5′—————AGGCCT—————3′
3′——————TCCGGA————–5′

8. Can you recall meiosis and indicate at what stage a recombinant DNA is made?
Ans: Recombinant DNA is formed due to crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome. It occurs during pachytene stage of prophase of meiosis I

9. Can you think and answer how a reporter enzyme can be used to monitor transformation of host cells by foreign DNA in addition to a selectable marker?
Ans: A reporter enzyme can be used to differentiate transformed cells by tracking down the activity of its co-responding genes (receptor gene). For e.g., (3-galactosidase (Lac Z) activity is not found in transformed cells so that they appear white in colour. The others, which appear blue in colour, indicate that cells do not carry foreign DNA.

10. Describe briefly the followings:
(a) Origin of replication
(b) Bioreactors
(c) Downstream processing
Ans: (a) Origin of Replication: This is a sequence from where replication starts and any piece of DNA when linked to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells. This sequence is also responsible for controlling the copy number of the linked DNA. So, if one wants to recover many copies of the target DNA it should be cloned in a vector whose origin support high copy number.

(b) Bioreactor: Bioreactors can be thought of as vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products by microbes, plant and animal cell and/or their enzymes. The bioreactor provides optimum growth conditions and facilitates achieving the desired products. The most commonly used bioreactor is of stirring type. A stirred tank bioreactor is usually a cylindrical vessel or vessel with a curved base to facilitate mixing of the contents. In the sparged stirred tank bioreactor, sterile air bubbles are sparged. The stirrer facilitates the mixing and oxygen availability throughout the bioreactor. A bioreactor has an agitator system, an oxygen delivery system, a foam control system, a temperature control system, pH control system and sampling ports.

(c) Downstream Processing : The product obtained is subjected to a series, of processes collectively called downstream processing before it is made into a finished product ready for marketing. The two main processes are separation and purification. The product is then formulated with suitable preservatives. Such formulations have to undergo clinical trials, in case of drugs.

11. Explain briefly
(a) PCR
(b) Restriction enzymes and DNA
(c) Chitinase
Ans: (a) PCR = Polymerase chain reaction (in vitro method) is a molecular biological technique for enzymatically replicating DNA without using a living organism, such as E. coli or yeast.
3 steps in PCR are –
(i) Denaturation of desired double strand DNA-to ssDNA.
(ii) Annealing of primer to ssDNA (single standard).
(iii) Extension of primer by Taq DNA polymerase isolated form Thermits aquaticus.
Uses – Amplification of desired gene/gene cloning.
Advantage- More output, greater efficiency, less error prone, less human interference and cyclic and automated.
(b) Restriction enzymes and DNA – Restriction enzymes is a group of enzymes used to cleave or cut DNA strands each having a characteristics base sequence at which it cleaves.
(i) It restricts foreign DNA from entering normal cell by digesting it at various recognition site. Recognition site is palindromic.
(ii) They are endonuclease and exonuclease both types.
(iii) They produces sticky ends. Cleavage site and recognition site are different from each other. Restriction enzymes therefore are believed to be a mechanism evolved by bacteria to resist viral attack and to help in the removal of viral sequences.
(c) Chitinase – Chitinase is a enzyme to digest or breakdown glycosidic bonds in chitin cell wall of fungal cell to facilitate its transformation.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 Biology Biotechnology and its Applications

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 12 Biotechnology and its Applications:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1. Crystals of Bt toxin produced by some bacteria do not kill the bacteria themselves because –
(a) bacteria are resistant to the toxin
(b) toxin is immature;
(c) toxin is inactive;
(d) bacteria encloses toxin in a special sac.
Ans: (c) Toxin is inactive.

2. What are transgenic bacteria? Illustrate using any one example.
Ans: Bacteria having gene or genes usually from an unrelated organism incorporated into their genome are called transgenic bacteria. For example, when human insulin gene is introduced into the isolated plasmid of E.coli bacterium and this recombinant DNA is transferred into a fresh bacterium, then the later is said to be transgenic or transformed bacterium.

3. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of production of genetically modified crops.
Ans:

4. What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produces it. How has man exploited this protein to his benefit?
Ans: The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is a common soil bacterium which produces a protein toxin that kills certain insects. The toxin is a crystal (Cry) protein. There are several kinds of Cry proteins which are toxic to different groups of insects. The gene encoding Cry protein is called cry gene. Biotechnologists have been able to isolate the gene responsible for production of toxin and to introduce it into a number of plants to produce genetically modified plants resistant to insects, e.g., Bt cotton (resistant to bollworm) and GM tobacco (resistant to hornworms).

5. What is gene therapy? Illustrate using the example of adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
Ans: Gene therapy is correction of malfunctioning/gen by repairing or adding correct copy. ADA (adenosine deaminase deficiency) is a very rare genetic disorder due to deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase. The enzyme is crucial for the immune system to functions. It can be treated by gene therapy. This gene is transfected into early embryonic cells of bone marrow for permanent use.

6. Digrammatically represent the experimental steps in cloning and expressing an human gene (say the gene for growth hormone) into a bacterium like E. coli?
Ans:

7. Can you suggest a method to remove oil (hydrocarbon) from seeds based on your understanding of rDNA technology and chemistry of oil?
Ans: The genes for the formation of oil in the seed should be identified. The appropriate genes should be removed with the help of restriction endonucleases. Such DNA should then be treated with DNA ligases to make seal DNA at the broken ends. These cells when grown aseptically on nutrient medium will differentiate into a new plant whose seeds will not have oil in them.

8. Find out from internet what is golden rice.
Ans: Golden rice is a transgenic variety of rice (Oryza sativa) containing good quantities of β-carotene (provitamin A) which is principle source of vitamin A. Since the grains of the rice are yellow in colour due to β-carotene, the rice is commonly called golden rice. It was developed at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology by Professor Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer.

9. Does our blood have proteases and nucleases?
Ans: No, blood does not have protease and nuclease. If it would have been there blood and cell would have been digested, some protease do exist in inactive form.

10. Consult internet and find out how to make orally activ&protein pharmaceutical. What is the major problem to be encountered?
Ans: Orally active protein product that is successfully manufactured is vaccines for preventions of infectious diseases such as hepatitis B, herpes, influenza, etc. Gene for antigen are isolated from bacteria and grown along with cut leaf portions of potato plant in antibiotic medium – followed by callus formation and recombinant/transgenic potato are obtained which contain those vaccines.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 Biology Organisms and Populations

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 13 Organisms and Populations:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1.  How is diapause different from hibernation?
Ans: Diapause is a period of suspended growth or development occuring in many insects and other invertebrates during which metabolic activities are greatly reduced. On the other hand, hibernation is a sleep like state in which a few animals, such as fishes and amphibians, pass the winter season as a way of surviving food scarcity and cold weather.

2. If a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, will the fish be able to survive? Why or why not?
Ans: When a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, the fish will not be able to survive because marine fish is adapted to live in saline seawater. In fresh water, it will not be able to cope with the outside hypotonic environment because of osmoregulation problem. In fresh water, the concentration of water, the difference between the concentration of the water and inside of the fish are increased and therefore, the osmotic pressure is also increased. The fish has to take more water into the body to be able to survive and to get rid of the excess salt present in its body.

3. Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one example.
Ans: Phenotypic adaptations are physiological adaptations which allow organisms to respond quickly to a stressful condition. E.g., altitude sickness experienced by many individuals at higher altitude. Persons feel nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations because their body does not get enough oxygen due to low atmospheric pressure. But after some time, the individuals get acclimatised to given conditions and get adapted to changing environment.

4. Most living organisms cannot survive at temperature above 45°C. How are some microbes able to live in habitats with temperatures exceeding 100°C?
Ans: Micro-organisms of hot.springs and vents (mouth of sea bed volcanoes) are able to survive at the high temperature due to
(i) occurrence of branched chain lipids in their cell membrane that reduce fluidity of cell membranes.
(ii) having minimum amount of free water in their bodies. Removal of water provides resistance to high temperature.

5. Last the attributes that populations but not individuals possess.
Ans: Some significant attributes that populations but not individual possess are –
(i) Natality
(ii) Mortality
(iii) Growth forms
(iv) Population density
(v) Population dispersion
(vi) Population age distribution
(vii) Sex ratio

6. If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of the population?
Ans: If the population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, the intrinsic rate of increase of this population will be towards maximum.

7. Name important defence mechanisms in plants against herbivory.
Ans: For plants, herbivores are the predators. Nearly 25% of all insects are known to be phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants). The problem is severe for plants because, unlike animals, they cannot run away from their predators. Plants, therefore, have evolved an astonishing variety of morphological and chemical defences. against herbivores. Thorns and spines (Acacia, cactus) are the most common morphological means of defence. Some plants manufacture toxins that poison the attacking herbivores, whereas others produce complex compounds which interfere with the attackers growth cycle or its ability to digest the plant.

Plants have evolved many secondary metabolites involved in plant defense, which are collectively known as antiherbivory compounds. These are nitrogen compounds (including alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, benzoxazinoids), terpenoids and phenolics. The weed Calotropis grows in abandoned field.

This plant produces highly poisonous cardiac glyfcosides. This is the reason why any cattle or goat are not commonly seen grazing on this plant.

8. An orchid plant is growing on the branch of mango tree. How do you describe this interaction between the orchid and the mango tree?
Ans: An orchid plant is growing on the branch of a mango tree is called epiphyte, i.e., plants growing on other plants or trees. This type of interaction is known as commensalism, where in orchid / derives benefit of interaction whereas mango tree is not affected. The orchid growing on the branch of mango tree get more light to grow and also, the mango is not harmed in any way.
Commensalism can be defined as an interaction between two animal or plant species that habitually live together in which one species benefits from the association while the other is not significantly affected.

9. What is the ecological principle behind the biological control method of managing with pest insects?
Ans: Biological control of pests is largely based on predator – prey relation. Baculoviruses (mostly of genus Nitcleopolyhedrovims) are useful in controlling many insects and other arthropods. Aphids and other pests are kept under check by beetles (e.g., Coccinclin or lady bird beetle). Fish Gambusia is introduced in ponds to check growth of mosquito larvae. Biological control methods adopted in agricultural pest control are based on prey regulating ability of the predator.

10. Distinguish between the following:
(a) Hibernation and Aestivation
(b) Ectotherms and Endotherms
Ans:

11. Write a short note on
(a) Adaptations of desert plants and animals
(b) Adaptations of plants to water scarcity
(c) Behavioural adaptations in animals
(d) Importance of light to plants
(e) Effect of temperature or water scarcity and the adaptations of animals.
Ans: (a) Desert plants have very small leaves or no leaves at all, and carrying out photosynthesis through the stems. Their stem could become succulent, and can store and retain water. Animals living in hot climatic region tend to be smaller than those living in cold climates. This can be explained by the fact that the amount of heat gained from the environment is approximately proportional to the body surface area. The majority of animals living in desert are small, like kangaroo rat. It feed on dry seeds and other dry plant material and does not drink,
(b) The evergreen trees such as Rhododendron, show water scarcity by an inward curling of the leaves. A more significant response is the closure of stomata, which reduces transpiration, but raises the internal temperature of die leaf affecting the rate of synthesis of proteins and photosynthesis. Deciduous trees of the temperature region drop their leaves in autumn, avoiding winter drought. Some water stressed plant’s accumulate excessive amounts of inorganic ions.
(c) Migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat forms a more stressful habitat is a kind of behavioural adaptation in animals which enables them to survive in better environmental conditions. Desert lizards regulate their body temperature constant by behavioural means. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature decreases below the optimum, but move into shady or underground places when the temperature of the surrounding area starts increasing.
(d) Light affects plants through its quality, intensity and duration. Duration of light affects phenology, photosynthesis, growth, reproduction, flowering. Quality of light influences flowering, seed germination and movements. Light is required for the production of chlorophyll in chloroplasts. Plants germinated under insufficient illumination causes the destruction of chlorophyll.
(e) Animals mainly are of two types as they are adapted to controlling their body temperature. Poikilothermous are the animals whose temperature fluctuates with that of the environment, e.g., invertebrates and vertebrates, other than birds and animals. In contrast, homeotherms are the animals which can maintain their body temperature at a constant level, e.g., birds and mammals.

12. List the various abiotic environmental factors.
Ans: Abiotic factors are non living factors and conditions of the environment which influence survival, function and behaviour of organisms. Various abiotic factors are :

(i) Temperature – Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors. The average temperature varies seasonally. It ranges from subzero level in polar areas and high altitudes to more than 50°C in tropical deserts in summer and exceeds 100°C in thermal springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

(ii) Water – Next to temperature, water is the most important factor which influences the life of organisms. The productivity and distribution of land plants are dependent upon availability of water. Animals are adapted according to the water availability. E.g., aquatic animals are ammonotelic while xerophytic animals excrete dry feces and concentrated urine.

(iii) Light – Plants produce food through photosynthesis for which sunlight is essential source of energy. Light intensity, light duration and light quality influences the number of life processes in organisms, such as – photosynthesis, growth, trans-piration, germination, pigmentation, movement and photoperiodism.

(iv) Humidity – Humidity refers to the moisture (water vapour) content of the air. It determines the formation of clouds, dew and fog. It affects the land organisms by regulating the loss of water as vapour from their bodies through evaporation, perspiration and transpiration.

(v) Precipitation – Precipitation means rainfall, snow, sleet or dew. Total annual rainfall, seasonal distribution humidity of the air and amount of water retained in the soil are the main criteria that limit the distribution of plants and animals on land.

(vi) Soil – The soil is one of the most important ecological factor called the edaphic factor. It comprises of different layers called horizons. The upper weathered humus containing part of soil sustains terrestrial plant life.

13. Give an example for:
(a) An endothermic animal
(b) An ectothermic animal
(c) An organism of benthic zone
Ans: (a) Man, (Homo sapiens)
(b) Black bear
(c) Corals

14. Define population and community.
Ans: Population is the group of individuals of a same species, capable of interbreeding among themselves found in a geographical area. E.g., all the frogs identified as Ram tigrina living in a given pond constitute a population. Similarly, all water hyacinth plants (Eichhoriiia) growing in that pond form another population. Organisms of the same kind may form several populations inhabiting different geographical areas.

Group of populations belonging to several different species that live together in the same area or habitat and interact through competition, predation, mutualism etc. comprises a biotic community. Communities are named after one of their dominant species (e.g., a pine community) or the major physical characteristics of the area (e.g., a freshwater pond community). A biotic community has three subunits; animal community, plant community and microbial community.

15. Define the following terms and give one example for each:
(a) Commensalism
(b) Parasitism
(c) Camouflage
(d) Mutualism
(e) Interspecific competition
Ans: (a) Commensalism is the association between organisms of different species in which one species benefits but does not apparent harm to the other. For example, in the large intestine of human being, bacteria Escherichia coli are present which helps in digestion.
(b) Parasitism is an association in which one organism lives on or in the body of another, from which it obtains its food. For example, the parasites of humans include fleas and lice, various bacteria, protozoans and fungi.
(c) Camouflage is a high degree of similarity between an animal and its visual environment, which enables it be disguished or concealed. For example, birds with necks and heads of contrasting colours are not easily recognised by their enemies under certain conditions.
(d) Mutualism is an association between two organisms of different species in which each partner benefits. For example, the cross fertilization or pollination of plant flowers by insects (sometimes by birds) is a mutual relation of wide occurrence and great importance, because many plants are self- sterile.
(e) Inter-specific competition can be defined as an interaction occurs between different species that share some environmental resource when this is in short supply. Inter-specific competition often results in the dominance of one species over another. For example, when two species of Paramoecium, Paramoecium caudatum and P.aurelia are confined in a closed containers with fixed amount of food, out of them one species always died out.

16. With the help of suitable diagram describe the . ; logistic population growth curve.
Ans: The S-shaped growth curve is also called a logistic growth curve. It describes a situation in which (in a new environmental condition) the population density of an organism increases slowly establishing itself then increasing rapidly, approaching an exponential growth rate. Many population of micro-organisms broadly follow this basic sigmoidal pattern. For example, when a fresh culture medium is inoculated with bacteria, sigmoidal or S-shaped growth curve is observed. The S-shaped curve is generated when a population approaches the environmental’s carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a population that can be supported in a given time.

The S-shaped growth form is represented by the following equation- ” dNldt = rN[K-NIK]
Where, r = intrinsic rate of natural increase N = population density at time t K = carrying capacity

17. Select the statement which explains best parasitism.
(a) One organism is benefited.
(b) Both the organisms are benefited.
(c) One organism is benefited, other is not affected.
(d) One organism is benefited, other is affected.
Ans: (d) One organism is benefited, other is affected.

18. List any three important characteristics of a population and explain.
Ans: The three important characteristics of a population are:
(a) Density: The number of individuals per unit area or volume. For example, the number of frogs per m³ of forest region.
(b) Natality or Birth rate: The birth rate is determined by the number of individuals bom to a given population during a given period of time.
(c) Mortality or Death rate: The death rate or mortality represents a decrease in a given population during a given period of time. Generally, the death of individuals in a population are expressed by specific mortality which is described as the mortality population are expressed by specific mortality which is described as the mortality for given age group.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 Biology Ecosystem

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 14 Ecosystem:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as————- because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers) is————- type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity is————- .
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are————- .
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is————- .
Ans: (a) Autotrophs
(b) Spindle
(c) Sunlight
(d) Earthworm, bacteria & fungi of decay and vulture
(e) Oceans

2. Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers.
(d) Decomposers
Ans: (d)

3. The second trophic level in a lake is-
(a) Phytoplankton
(b) Zooplankton
(c) Benthos
(d) Fishes
Ans: (b)

4. Secondary producers are
(a) Herbivores
(b) Producers
(c) Carnivores
(d) None of the above
Ans: (d)

5. What is the percentage of photo synthetically act., radiation (PAR), in the incident solar radiation?
(a) 100%
(b) 50 %
(c) 1-5%
(d) 2-10%
Ans: (b)

6. Distinguish between
(a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b) Production and decomposition
(c) ‘Upright and inverted pyramid
(d) Food chain and food web
(e) Litter and detritus
(f) Primary and secondary productivity
Ans: (a) Grazing Food Chain (GFC) begins with primary producers or plants and ends in carnivores (tertiary or top carnivores) whereas Detritus Food Chain (DFC) begins with detritus or dead organic matter and it ends in carnivores. In GFC, energy for the food chain comes from sun whereas in DFC, energy for the food chain comes from organic remains or detritus.

(b) Production is the phenomenon in which the energy is produced by the process of synthesis of organic compound from inorganic substances (such as CO₂, H₂O & minerals) utilizing generally the sunlight. It traps energy.
Decomposition refers to the breakdown of complex organic matter into simpler ones. It releases energy.

(c) In upright pyramid (e.g., grassland & cropland ecosystem), biomass or number of organisms or amount of energy decreases
on moving to upper trophic levels while in an inverted pyramid (eg. tree ecosystem) these quantities tend to increase on going to successive trophic levels.

(d) A food chain is a sequence of different types of organisms by which the flow of energy occurs from one trophic level to another whereas food web is the network of various food chains inter-connected to each other. Food webs increase adaptability and competitiveness of the organisms.

(e) Litter is the dead organic material fallen on the surface of the soil like leaves, remains of animals and excreta. Detritus is the dead organic matter found below the soil surface which is eaten up by the detritivores or broken down by decomposers.

(f) Primary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass or energy fixation by the plants. It is comparatively quite high.
Secondary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass by consumers (herbivores and carnivores). It is small and decreases with rise of trophic level.

7. Describe the components of an ecosystem.
Ans: The components of an ecosystem are as follows :

1. Abiotic components or non living components : These include inorganic substances or minerals (standing state or standing quality), organic substances and different climatic conditions like temperature, pH, light, etc.
2. Biotic components or living components :

(a) Autotrophs or producers which have capacity to manufacture their own food or which can fix radiant energy of sun into chemical energy, e.g., green plants and photosynthetic bacteria.

(b) Heterotrophs or consumers which are unable to manufacture their own food and depend upon other organisms for their food. These are of following types:

• Primary consumers or herbivores which depend upon producers or green plants for their food.
• Secondary consumers or carnivores which live upon herbivores.
• Top consumers or top carnivores which live upon secondary consumers.

(c) Decomposers or microconsumers decompose dead organic substances of producers and consumers into simple substances and thus continue mineral cycles, e.g., bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes etc.

8. Define’ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of number and biomass.
Ans:  Ecological pyramid is a graphical method to show the number of organisms or biomass or amount of energy present at different trophic levels. Pyramid of number: Number of individuals at each trophic level is shown in pyramid. The pyramid of number (for example of a grassland) is upright. In this there is a decrease in the number of organisms starting from primary producers (plants) to top consumers (carnivores). Pyramid of biomass : Pyramid of biomass is graphic representation of amount of biomass per unit area sequence wise in rising trophic levels with producers at the base and top carnivores at the apex. Pyramids of biomass of a tree or . grassland ecosystem are upright and the pyramid of a pond ecosystem is inverted.

9. What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect primary productivity.
Ans: Primary productivity of an ecosystem is the amount of energy fixed or biomass synthesized by primary producers or green plants per unit area per unit time during photosynthesis. Factors affecting primary productivity are –
-Plant species inhabiting a particular area
-Sunlight
-Temperature
-Soil water
-Nutrients
lit deserts, sunlight is abundant but water is scarce or nutrients are lacking. Therefore, in such areas, water & nutrients supply become the limiting factors.

10. Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of decomposition.
Ans: The process by which decomposers break down complex organic remains (dead plants, animal remains and excretions) into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients is called decomposition. The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralisation. Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation.

By the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.

Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. The process is called as catabolism.

All the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil.

Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.

The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation.

11. Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
Ans: Flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. The ultimate source of energy is sun. The solar energy is captured by the green plants which utilize it in synthesizing their own food. The energy fixed by the green plants is transferred to herbivores which feed on them. The energy is then transferred to higher trophic levels (carnivores). At every step, considerable amount of energy is lost. According to 10% law, only 10% of total energy stored in a trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level of a food chain.

12. Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem.
Ans: The movement of nutrient elements through various components of an ecosystem takes place by a biogeochemical cycle. It is of 2 types – gaseous and sedimentary. A nutrient that does not enter the atmosphere easily is said to have a sedimentary cycle. Sedimentary cycle involve cycling of sulphur, phosphorus etc. which are located in earth’s crust.
Phosphorus is a very important element as it is present in various substances found in living beings. The cycling of phosphorus in an ecosystem occurs in such a way that plants obtain it from soil or rocks. The animals or primary consumers obtain it from plants. Secondary consumers or carnivores take it from herbivores while omnivores (like man) receive it both from plants and animals. Phosphorus present in organisms is also released during decomposition.

13. Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem.
Ans:  Carbon is an important constituent of living matter. Green plants take it in the form of C02 from atmosphere and fix it as carbohydrates. Carbon which is also present in proteins, fats etc. is transferred to the organisms of other trophic levels. Apart from being released in atmosphere as C02 during respiration, carbon is also released in atmosphere through burning of wood, fossil fuel and decomposition of organic matter by microbes.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 Biology Biodiversity and Conservation

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 15 Biodiversity and Conservation:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1. Name the three important components of  biodiversity.
Ans: Three components of biodiversity are:
(a) Genetic diversity
(b) Species diversity
(c) Ecological diversity

2. How do ecologists estimate the total number of species present in the world?
Ans: Ecologists estimate the total number of species present in the world by comparing species richness of some exhaustively studied groups between any two regions (tropics, temperate or polar regions). Species richness, as a measure of diversity, has been used by many ecologists. Species density or the number of species per m² is most commonly used to measure species richness. Species abundance and species proportional abundance based indices are some other alternative approaches to the measurement of diversity.

3. Give three hypothesis for explaining why tropics ’”show greatest levels of species richness.
Ans: (1) The tropical area have a more stable climate than temperate zones. Local species continues to live in absence of natural disturbances.
(2) Warm temperature and high humidity in most tropical areas provide favourable conditions for growth and survival of diverse species.
(3) Tropical areas receive more solar energy over year and thus tropical communities are more productive and can support a wide range of species.

4. What is the significance of the slope of regression in a species-area relationship?
Ans: Slope of regression or regression coefficient makes it easier to measure species richness along an area. For a limited area like, a country, it gives a constant value of 0.1 to 0.2 irrespective of the taxonomic group or region. It remains amazingly similar for all those small regions. On the contrary, for measuring species-area relationship over large areas like the entire continents, the slope of regression values in the range of 0.6 to 1.2.

5. What are the major causes of species losses in a geographical region?
Ans: Species are lost in a geographical region due to natural disturbances like forest fires; famine, drought and also due to human disturbance with over replantation, habitat destruction, habitat displacement, over specialization, intensive agriculture and pollution.

6. How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning?
Ans: Biodiversity is important for ecosystem functioning because,
(1) It contributes to productivity.
(2) It cause more efficient recycling of energy and matter.
(3) It has many alternative pathways for survival under diverse conditions.
(4) Rich biodiversity provides alternatives available at each trophic level. All organisms are linked in food chains and interact with their abiotic environment in such a way so as to keep the natural cycles going and make the ecosystems self – sustaining units. Disappearance of any link in a food chain will not affect the ecosystem as other alternatives are there.

7. What are sacred groves? What is their role in conservation?
Ans: Sacred forests or sacred groves are forest patches around places of worship which are held in high esteem by tribal communities. They are the most undisturbed forest patches which are often surrounded by highly degraded landscapes. They are found in several parts of India, e.g., Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan (Aravalli), Madhya Pradesh (Sarguja, Bastar), Kerala, Meghalaya. Temples built by tribals are found surrounded by deodar forests in Kumaon region, Jaintias and Khasjas in Meghalaya. Not a single branch is allowed to be cut from these forests. As a result many endemic species which are rare or have become extinct elsewhere can be seen to flourish here. Bishnois of Rajasthan protect Prosopis cineraria and Black Buck religiously. Some water bodies are also held sacred in certain places, e.g., Khecheopalri in Sikkim. Their aquatic flora and fauna are naturally preserved.

8. Among the ecosystem services are control of floods and soil erosion. How is this achieved by the biotic components of the ecosystem?
Ans: Ecosystem services are products or benefits given by ecosystem processes to the environment for its purification, beauty, biodiversity, protection of natural resources, habitat to wild life and tribals, protection of soils, CO₂ – O₂ balance, retention of water against floods, drought and pollution. Plants play a vital role in the control of floods and soil erosion. Their roots bind the soil 10. particles firmly and in this way they do not allow the top soil to be drifted away by winds or moving water. Roots of plants also make the soil porous and allow water to go into the soil.

9. The species diversity of plants (22 per cent) is much less than that of animals (72 per cent). What could be the explanations to how animals achieved greater diversification?
Ans: Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region which is less in plants as compared to animals. It is due to greater dispersal/more number of surviving individuals. Most animals possess simple or complex nervous system to control and coordinate various activities. They possess receptors to receive against them. Most of their responses are adaptive and ensure their survival in changing environmental conditions. They, therefore, have evolved to reveal much higher species diversity than plants who do not possess nervous system and respond differently against environment stimuli.

10. Can you think of a situation where we deliberately want to make a species extinct? How would you justify it?
Ans: Humans can cause extinction of species through various means. We are trying to eradicate disease causing organisms (e.g., poliovirus) from this world to make this world disease free. Since such micro-organisms are harmful to the human society, such attempt is justified. Further, such micro-organisms are not essential components (producers or decomposers) of any ecosystem, and losing one or few such organisms would not affect the functioning of ecosystem.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 Biology Environmental Issues

Topics and Subtopics in NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 16 Environmental Issues:

QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED

1. What are the various constituents of domestic sewage? Discuss the effects of sewage discharge on a river.
Ans:  Domestic sewage contains four kind of impurities:
(i) Suspended solids: They are soil particles such as sand and silt.
(ii) Colloidal particles: They are inorganic and organic materials such as faecal matter, bacteria, paper and cloth.
(iii) Dissolved solids : They are nitrates, phosphates, ammonia, sodium, calcium and other nutrients.
(iv) Pathogens : Domestic sewage has pathogens of various diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, etc. Effect of sewage discharge on river are:
(i) Eutrophication.
(ii) Growth of pathogenic bacteria.
(iii) Ageing of river where slit and decaying matters start accumulating and filling river.
(iv) Increase in BOD.
(v) Destruction of flora and fauna of that river.

2. List all the wastes that you generate at home, school or during your trips to other places. Could you very easily reduce the generation of these wastes? Which would be difficult or rather impossible to reduce?
Ans: Waste materials generated at home : paper, disposable cups, cloth, plates, spoons, plastic envelopes, discarded food etc.

Waste materials generated at school are : paper, chalks, plastic envelopes etc.

Wastes materials generated during trips are : paper, disposable cups, plates, spoons, plastic envelopes, discarded food etc.

No, we cannot reduce the generation of these wastes easily, but few can be reduced. The wastes belong to two categories : biodegradable and non-biodegradable. It is difficult or rather impossible to reduce discarded food like peel of potato, peel of banana etc. We can do one important thing i.e., to reduce wastage of food.

3. Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures need to be taken to control global warming?
Ans: Increase in atmospheric concentration of green house gases has resulted in rise of atmospheric temperature by 0.6°C (global wanning) in die 20th century. This has been confirmed by intergovernmental panel on climatic change (IPCC) in its reports of 1991 and 1992. This predictable change in near future may affect climate, sea level, range of species distribution, food production as well as fisheries resources in the oceans.
Causes of global warming:
(i) Increase in concentration of greenhouse gases.
(ii) Increase of automobile and use of fossil fuel.
(iii) Deforestation and change in land use.
(iv) CFC and aerosol emission from refrigerator and aeroplane.
(v) Increased particulate matter in lower atmosphere.
Effects of global warming:
(i) CO₂ fertilisation effect.
(ii )Many species of plants, being sensitive to temperature will die with sudden rise in temperature and their place will be taken over by scrub vegetation.
(iii) Loss of biodiversity.
(iv) Rise in sea level.
(v) Possibilities of drought and floods.
(vi) Erruption of plant disease and pests.
(vii) Change in rainfall pattern.
Methods that can reduce the atmospheric concentration of greenhouses gases are
(i) Reducing the greenhouse gas emission by limiting the use of fossil fuels, and by developing alternative renewable sources of energy (wind energy, solar energy etc.)
(ii) Increasing the vegetation cover, mainly the forests, for photosynthetic utilization of CO₂.
(iii) Minimizing the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture for reducing N₂O emissions.
(iv) Developing substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons.

4. Match the items given in column A and B:

Ans: (a)-(iii),(b)-(iv),(c)-(i),(d)-(ii)

5. Write critical notes on the following:
(a) Eutrophication
(b) Biological magnification
(c) Groundwater depletion and ways for its replenishment
Ans: (a) Eutrophication : It is excessive growth of algae, plants and animals in water bodies due to the nutrient enrichment particularly with nitrogen and phosphorus. It is both natural and accelerated. It leads to loss of bio-diversity and cuases chemical accumulation in food chain and ageing of water body.

(b) Biological magnification : Increase in concentration of persistent chemical at successive trophic levels is called eutrophication. This happens because a toxic substance accumulated by an organism can not be metabolized or excreted, and is thus passed onto next trophic level, e.g., DDT.

(c) Ground water depletion and replacement: Ground water depletion, a term often defined as long term water level declines caused by sustained ground water pumping, is a key issue associated with ground water use. Many areas of India experiencing ground water depletion.
The most servere consequence of excessive ground water pumping is that the water table, below which the ground is saturated – with water, can be lowered. If ground water level declines too far, then the well owner might have to deepen the well, drill a new well, or at least attempt to lower the pump.

6. Why ozone hole forms over Antarctica? How will enhanced ultraviolet radiation affect us?
Ans: Chlorofluorocarbons, mainly released in the atmosphere by developed countries, Slowly enters the stratosphere and the winds move them towards the poles. Environmental conditions prevailing in Antarctica during winter months; there is no sunlight in Antarctica and extremely low temperature ( – 85°C) facilitates the formation of ice clouds. During winter, natural circulation of wind (polar vertex) completely isolates Antarctic air from the rest of the world.

The ice clouds provide the catalytic surface for the reaction of chlorine atoms and then ozone. But this degradation of ozone occurs with the return of solar radiations to Antarctica during spring (September and October). This results in the thinning of ozone layer every year over most of Antarctica. This hole disappears in summer due to warming up of air and the mixing up of Antarctic air with that of the rest of the world.
Enhanced UV radiations on earth would affect humans and other animals by causing:

• Skin cancer
• Blindness and increased chances of cataract in eyes.
• Malfunctioning of immune system.
• Higher number of mutations.

7. Discuss the role of women and communities in protection and conservation of forests.
Ans: Amrita Bishnoi Wildlife protection project The Bishnoi community is known for its peaceful coexistence with nature. It was in 1730 AD. Amrita Devi protested against king’s men’s attemptto cut trees as it was prohibited in Bishnoi religion. It was a party of Maharaja Abhay Singhji, Rular of Marwar (Jodhpur) state who wanted to fell green khejdali trees. Amrita Devi fy her three daughter & more than 360 of other Bishnois lost their lives in saving trees & became martyers. Later ‘Chipko’ movement’ was started by Sunderlal Bahuguna and others to prevent cutting of trees. The people showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from the axe of contractors by hugging them.

8. What measures, as an individual, would you take to reduce environmental pollution?
Ans: To reduce environmental pollution we should take following measures:
(i) Reducing use of CFC.
(ii) Disposing off waste safely.
(iii) Reducing use of polythene.
(iv) Not disposing off waste in water bodies.
(v) Making automobiles pollution free.
(iv) Prevention of noise pollution by using fire crackers/TV/musical instruments at permissible limits.
(vii) Tree plantation in school, around residence.

9. Discuss briefly the following:
(a) Radioactive wastes
(b) Defunct ships and e-wastes
(c) Municipal solid wastes
Ans: (a) Radioactive waste : Radioactive waste include materials that are radioactive & for which there is no further practical use. These are generated by nuclear reactor, nuclear fallout, man made (refining and mining of platinum and thorium), natural radioactive waste and release of radiation in radiation therapy.
Increased risk of cancer, birth defects & infertility are few harmful effects caused by nuclear waste. So, nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant.

(b) Defunct ships & e-wastes – The dismantling of defunct ship is a technically complex process, which is potentially harmful to the environment & human health. Defunct i ships contain toxicants like asbestos, mercury, etc. The workers breaking the ships are not suitably protected and are exposed to toxic chemicals. The coastal areas in the vicinity of the ship-breaking yard also becomes polluted. At the international level, it is accepted that there is uncertainty about the relevant controls for the dismantling of such vessels & there is an urgent need to establish a specific enforceable control framework.
Electronic waste comprised of irrepairable computer and other electronic goods, generated by developed countries.
It is valuable source of secondary raw materials, if treated properly, however if not treated properly it is the major source of toxins. Eventually recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-wastes provided it is carried out in an environment friendly manner.

(c) Municipal solid wastes : These are commonly known as trash or garbage. It consists of everyday items such as product packaging, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers.
appliances, paints, batteries etc. Source reduction, recycling and compositing are several municipal social waste management practices. Source reduction involves altering the design, manufacture or use of products & materials to reduce die amount and toxicity of what gets thrown away. Recycling diverts items such as paper, glass, plastic & metals into anew products. Composting decomposes organic waste such as food scraps & yard trimmings with micro-organisms, producing a humus-like substance.

10. What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi? Has air quality improved in Delhi?
Ans: The initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi are :-
(i) Introduction of CNG
(ii) Enforcement of pollution control law
(iii) Introduction of green zones
(iv) Use of unleaded fuels
(v) Replacement of old vehicle with new one. The result is that the air quality of Delhi has improved considerably with a substantial fall in pollutant gases.
(vi)Use of catalytic converters in vehicles.
(vii)Application of Euro II norms for vehicle.

11. Discuss briefly the following:
(a) Greenhouse gases
(b) Catalytic converter
(c) Ultraviolet B
Ans: (a) Greenhouse gases: Gases that trap the heat of the sun in the earth’s atmosphere increasing atmospheric temperature effect are called greenhouses gases. CO₂, CH₄, N₂O and CFC, cause greenhouse. In the absence of greenhouse gases, the temperature of earth would go down to -18°C. The net effect of higher GHGs will be disastrous, (i) Melting of polar ice caps and mountain snow caps resulting in rising of sea level threatening submergence of many islands and coastal areas. Odd climate changes like El Nino. Increased floods and drought.
(b) Catalytic converter : Catalytic converter ‘are used to reduce emission of poisonous gases like nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide & un reacted hydrocarbon in automotive emission. It is made of platinum, palladium and rhodium and is used as catalyst. It converts unbumt hydrocarbons into CO₂. The only precaution required is not to use gasoline having lead as lead inactivates the catalysts of the converter.
(c) Ultraviolet B : Ultraviolet B is one of the three types of invisible light rays given off by the sun. Ultraviolet B penetrates the ozone layer in attenuated form & reaches earths. This is more over equator than poles due to thinning of ozone shield over equator. It causes skin cancer, reduce rate of photosynthesis in phytoplanktons, reduces diversity of aquatic ecosystem.

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NCERT  Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

1. List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Ans:

2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice? [Delhi, All India 2009, 2011]
Ans: (a) Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society in the following ways:

• Burials
• Looking for “luxuries”.

(b) The archaeologists have noticed the following differences in the socio-economic conditions in Harappan society :

• In the Harappan society, the dead were generally laid in pits. In some burial pits the hallowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.
• Some graves contain pottery and ornaments.
• In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
• Artefacts are divided into two categories – utilitarian and luxuries. The utilitarian objects are of daily use. These are made of ordinary materials such as stone and clay. These are found in all settlements. Luxury items are found in large settlements of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. These are made of valuable materials like faience. Gold too was rare and precious as all the gold jewellery has been found at Harappan sites.

3. Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans: Yes, I agree with that the drainage system in Harappan cities which indicates the town planning. I can cite the following reasons in support of my answer.

• The drainage system needed a planning for its execution. It seems that first drainages were laid out and then houses were built along with the drains. Every house was supposed to have at least one wall along a street to allow the domestic waste water to flow out in the street drains. The plans of the lower town show that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
• It appears that human settlement was made by planning from the beginning. The city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.
• Bricks, sundried or baked, were of standard ratio. The length and breadth of bricks were of four times and twice the height respectively These bricks were used at all the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

4. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan Civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Ans: Making beads was an important craft of the Harappan people. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.

Materials for making beads included beautiful red coloured stone-like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite. Besides these, use of copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta or burnt clay was also used.Process of making beads Making of beads differed as per the materials used. Beads had variety*of shapes. They did not make geometrical shapes like one made of harder stones.
Nodules were to be chipped for making rough shapes. They were finally flaked into the final form.
By firing the yellowish raw material, the red colour of camelian was obtained. Grinding, polishing and drilling constituted the last phase. Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira were famous for specialized drilling.

5. Look at figure 1.30 (See NCERT page-26) and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Ans: Following observations can be obtained after looking at the figure:

• Body has been kept in North-south direction in a pit,
• Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
• Yes, jewellery like bangles are there on the body.
• Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, Le. it is the body of a woman.

It is concluded that there were great social or economic differences among the people living within the area of the Harappan Civilisation. But as a whole it appears that the Harappan did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

6. Describe some ofthe distinctive features of Mohenjodaro. [Delhi 2013]
Ans: Planned City: Harappa as a planned urban centre. It had two parts. One part of the city was small. It was built on a higher place.

The second part was comparatively large. It was built on a lower place. The first part was designed as citadel and the second part was as lower town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that it was built on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all sides and these walls were separated from the lower town.

Lower Town: It was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms.
In fact, these platforms were considered as foundation stones. It required huge quantity of labour force to build these platforms. It is obvious that settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. Quality of sun-dried bricks or baked bricks also prove the concept of planning.
All the bricks were of standard ratio. The length and width was four times and twice the height of the bricks respectively. These bricks were used in the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

Drainage System: The drainage system was well planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern. They intersected one another at the right angles. It seems that streets featuring drains were laid out first and houses were built thereafter along with them. To make the flow of domestic water, every house had at least one wall along the street.

The Citadel: There were many buildings in the citadel. These buildings were used for many special public purposes. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the two most important constructions.

7. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Ans: (a) The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation was as given below:

• Stones like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;
• Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and
• Shell, faience and terracotta, or burnt clay.

(b) The above raw materials might have been obtained as mentioned below :

• They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available. Other places were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone and Lothal near the sources of camelian, steatite and metal.
• The second way was to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and south India for gold.
• The third way to have contact with distant lands. For example, copper was brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Mesopotamian texts mention contact with Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.

8. Discuss, how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Ans: Archaeologists excavate the sites of the ancient past related to culture or civilization. They find out the art and craft such as seal, material, remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys, etc.

Skulls, bones, jaws, teeth of the dead bodies and materials kept with these dead bodies are also helpful for archaeologists. With the help of the botanists, and zoologists, archaeologists study the plants and animal bones found at different places.

Archaeologists try to find out the tools used in the process of cultivation and harvesting. They also try to find out traces of wells, canals, tanks, etc. as they served means of irrigation.

Different layers of sites are observed to find out different things. These things give the picture of socio-economic condition such as religious life and the cultural life of the people.

Tools, unfinished products, waste materials, help in identifying the centres of craft production. Indirect evidences also help the archaeologists in reconstructing the past.

Archaeologists develop frames of references, It can be better understood by this fact that the first Harappan seal that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it-both in terms of cultural sequence in which it was found and in terms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia.

Examination of seals help in constructing the concept of religious belief of the period. Seals depict religious scenes. Some animals such as the one-homed animal, often called the unicorn depicted on the seals appear mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure has been shown sitting crossed legs in a yogic posture. All these represent the religious concept of the period.

9. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Ans: There are different views on the Harappan society. One group of archaeologists suggest that the Harappan society had no rulers and so everybody enjoyed equal status. The other group of archaeologists are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but several ones. The third theory seems the most suitable. It suggests that it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.

Evidences show that complex decisions were taken and implemented in the Harappan society. Extra ordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks show the complex decisions.

Plans and layouts of the city were prepared under the guidance and supervisions of the rulers. Big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals and granaries were constructed.

Cleanliness was the responsibility of the ruler. Roads, lanes and drains were also constructed.

The rulers also looked after the welfare of the economy. They hsed to inspire the farmers to increase agricultural production. They also motivated the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts. External and internal trade were both promoted by the ruler. The ruler used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weights and measurements.

Rulers were expected to provide relief during natural calamity. During flood, earthquake, epidemics, the ruler provided grains and other eatables to the affected people. During foreign aggression, the rulers defended the city.

10. On the given map, use a pencil to circle the sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials were found.
Ans: (i) Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira (Gujarat).
(ii) Sites of craft production: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot.
(iii) Sites of raw material: Nageshwar, Balakot, Khetri.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies 

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Ans: Widespread and deep excavations in the early historic towns have not been possible due to the fact that these towns are still inhabited. In Harappan Civilisation, we have been fortunate enough that excavations have taken place widespread. Despite this shortcoming, we have found many artefacts in the historic towns. These throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. There are other evidences too, that throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. The salient features of such evidences are as follows:
1. From the sights the fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They are glossy too and we call them Northern Black Polished Ware. It looks they were used by the rich people.
2. There have also been evidence of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There are a wide range of items made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
3. The donor inscription tells who all lived in towns in terms of professionals and craftsmen. It included washer men, weaver, scribes, carpenters, goldsmith, ironsmith, etc. It is notable in Harappan towns there are no evidences of iron use.
4. The craftsmen and artisans built their guilds too. They collectively bought raw materials, produced and marketed their products.

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Ans: The salient features of mahajanapadas are as follows :

• The most important mahajanapadas were Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti.
• Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings.
• Some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
• In some cases, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively.
• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
• Brahmanas composed the Dharmasutras which laid down norms for rulers as well as for other social categories. The rulers were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas. Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans.
• Sometimes raids on neighbouring states were conducted for acquiring wealth. These raids were recognised as legitimate means.
• Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia, recruited from the peasantry.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans: Ordinary people could not leave behind any historical evidence about their life. Hence, the historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the lives of the common people during the ancient times. The important sources are:
1. Remains of houses and pottery give an idea of the life of common men.
2. Some inscriptions and scriptures talk about the relation between monarchs and the subject. It talks about taxes and happiness and unhappiness of the common men.
3. Changing tools of craftsmen and farmers talk about the lifestyle of the people.
4. Historians also depend upon folklores to reconstruct the lives of the people during the ancient times.

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (source 8). Do you notice any similarities and differences?
Ans: The gifts given to Pandya chief included things like ivory, fragrant wood, honey, sandal¬wood, pepper, flowers, etc. in additions to many birds and animals were also given as gifts. On the contrary, items produced in the village of Danguda included grass, skin of animals, flower salt and other minerals, etc. In both the lists the only common item is flower.

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Ans: The problems faced by epigraphists are as given below :

1. Sometimes, the letters of inscriptions are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain.
2. Sometimes, the inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.
3. On certain occasions it is not easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in the inscriptions, some of which maybe specific to a particular place or time. That is why scholars are constantly debating and discussing alternative ways of reading inscriptions.
4. Several thousand inscriptions have been discovered but not all have been deciphered, published and translated.
5. Many more inscriptions must have existed, which have not survived the ravages of
   time. Whatever is available, is only a fraction of all inscriptions.
6. There is also a possibility that what we consider politically or economically significant may not have been recorded in inscriptions. For example, there is no mention of routine agricultural practices and the joys and sorrows of daily existence in the inscriptions.

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements ate evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Ans: The main features of Mauryan administration are as follows :

1. There were five major political centres in the empire i.e., the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.
2. The communication system existed along both land and riverine routes. It was very vital for the existence of the empire.
3. As the journeys from the centre to the provinces could have taken a long time, there was arrangement for provisions as well as protection for the travellers,
4. The Mauryans kept a large army. Magasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity which were as mentioned below :
   • One to look after the navy;
   • The second for management of transport and provisions;
   • The third was responsible for foot soldiers;
   • The fourth for horses;
   • The fifth for chariots;
   • The sixth for elephants.

The element that there were five major political centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra, and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri – all have been mentioned in the Asoka’s inscriptions.

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Ans: The statement of eminent epigraphist D.C. Sirkar has highlighted the importance of inscription as single source of information that touch upon all areas of our life. Following are the main areas we get information about from the inscriptions
1. Determination of state’s boundaries: the inscriptions were carved in the territories of the kings and even more important is not often close to the borders. This help us find out boundaries of kingdoms and their expansions thereto.
2. Names of Kings: The names of the kings are mentioned in the inscriptions. The names and titles used by Asoka the Great got revealed through inscriptions only.
3. Historic events: The important historical events are mentioned in the inscriptions. The best example is how the event of the Kalinga war is mentioned in the inscription and how Asoka takes to Dhamma.
4. Information about conduct of Kings: Inscriptions describe the conduct and character of the kings quite well. It is through the inscriptions only that we know Asoka worked for the welfare of the masses.
5. Information about administration: Inscriptions gave information about administration. It is through the inscription. We know that Asoka appointed his son as a Viceroy.
6. Land settlement and Taxes: inscriptions mention how land were granted or gifted. It also talks about various taxes imposed by the ruler.
There is hardly any area of governance of our life that is not mentioned in the inscriptions. Hence, we are inclined to agree with D.C. Sirkar who says, “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of Indians that is not reflected in the inscriptions.”

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Ans: In the post-Mauryan age, the idea of kingship got associated with divine theory of state. Now, the monarchs began to talk about divine sanction to rule the people. Kushan rulers propagated the idea of the same at the unprecented scale. They ruled from central Asia to western India. We can discuss the kingship based on the dynasties.
1. Kushan Kings: Kushan Kings called themselves Devputra and hence, godly status. They built great statues of themselves in temples.
2. Gupta Rulers: Second development of kingship is found during Gupta dynasty. It was a period of large-sized states. Such states were dependent on Samantas who sometimes became powerful enough to usurp the power of kings too.
3. Literature, coins and inscriptions helped us in creating history of those days. Very often poets would describe the monarch often to praise them but giving insight into the history and kingship too. A good example is of Harisena who praised Samudragupta, the great Gupta ruler.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans: The demand for taxes increased in the post 600 BC. In order to meet the demand of excessive taxes, without taking lesser produce, forced the farmers to increase productivity. This resulted in the use of new tools and practices of agriculture. The important ones are as follows:
1.Use of plough: Ploughs became commonplace. They were hardly heard of in the past. The use of ploughs began in the Ganga and Cauvery basins. In places where rain was abundant, the plough was used with iron tip. This increased the paddy production manifold.
2. Use of spade: Another tool that changed the system of agriculture is spade. Those farmers who lived in the areas of harsh land used spade.
3. Artificial Irrigation: Apart from rainfall, the farmers now began to look at artificial form of irrigation. This prompted farmers to build wells, ponds, and – canals often collectively. This increased the agricultural production.
The production increased due to new technology and tools. This created a new strata in the society. In the Buddhist literature, there is a description of small and big farmers. They were called Grihpatis. Similar description is given in the Tamil literature too. The position of village head was often hereditary. In such a situation the ownership of land became very important.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies 

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Ans: Patriliny is the system through which descent from father to son and grandson is traced. The principle of patriliny would have been essential for the elite families for the following reasons:
Continuity of Dynasty: As per the Dharmashastras, it was an established belief that the son carried forward the dynasty. That was the main reason that the families wished for sons not for daughters. A couplet of Rigveda also substantiates this view. In this couplet, a father at the time of the marriage of his daughter wishes that she should have best sons with the grace of Lord Shiva.
Inheritance: In royal families, the acquisition of throne was included in the inheritance. After the death of a king, his eldest son was supposed to inherit the throne. After the death of the parents, the property was to be equally divided among all the sons. In fact, parents avoided disputes in the family after their death. Most of the royal families followed the patriliny since 600 B.C. But sometimes this system had exceptions also.

• The brother of the king ascended the throne in case the former had no son.
• Relatives also claimed inheritance of the throne.
• In some special cases, women also ascended the throne like Prabhavati Gupta.

2. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Ans: According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. Their functions were to ‘ engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice. But the kings in early states were not invariably Kshatriyas. Several important ruling lineages probably had different origins as mentioned below :

• Regarding the Mauryas, the Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas but Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin.
• The Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmanas.
• The Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.
• The best known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.

Thus, it appears that political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster : support and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.

3. Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba andMatanga.
Ans: Drona: Drona was a Brahmanas. As per the Dharmashastras, it was the duty of the Brahmana to impart education. It was considered a pious deed of the Brahmanas. Drona was also following that system. He was imparting education. He taught archery to the princes of the Kuru Dynasty. In those days, people of low caste were not entitled to get education. Keeping this view in mind, Drona refused imparting education to Ekalavya. But in the course of time, Ekalavya learnt archery and acquired great skill. But Drona demanded right thumb of Ekalavya as his teaching fee. This was against religious norms. In fact, Drona did this just to ensure that no one could be better archer than Aijuna in the field of archery.
Hidimba: Hidimba was a lady demon, that is rakshasini. In fact, all the rakshasas were man-eaters. One day her brother asked her to catch Pandavas so that he may eat them. But Hidimba did not follow this. She fell in love with Bhima and married him. A rakshasa boy was bom to him, named Ghatotkacha. In this way, Hidimba did not keep ; the norms of rakshasas.
Matanga: Matanga was Boddhisatta who was bom in the family of a chandala. But he married Dittha Mangalika who was the daughter of a merchant. A son was bom to him named Mandavya Kumara. In the course of time he learnt three Vedas. He used to offer food to sixteen hundred Brahmanas every day.’But when his father appeared before him dressed in rags with a clay alms bowl in his hand, he refused to offer food to him. The reason was that, he considered his father as outcaste and his food was meant for Brahmanas only. Matanga advised his son not to be proud of his birth. After saying this, he disappeared into the air. When Dittha Mahgalika knew this incident, she went after Matanga and begged his forgiveness. This way acted like a true wife. She performed her duty religiously. A donor is considered generous. But Mandavya failed to follow the norms of religion and generosity.

4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta?
Ans: The Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta describes the four social .categories to have emanated from the body of Purusha : The Brahmana was his mouth. The Kshatriya was made of his arms. His thigh became the Vaishya and of his feet the Shudra was born. Thus, the four social categories or vamas – Brahmana, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were result of a divine order. The Brahmanas often cited this verse to justify their claims for ideal occupations of four vamas. They also attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.

On the other hand, the Buddhists in the Sutta Pitaka suggested that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.

However, in due course of time, human beings became greedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led to deterioration of their condition. They felt some authority to control them and he would get something in return from the people. Thus, the institution of kingship came into existence and people could change it in future in accordance with their needs. It was, therefore, a social contract and not a divine order.

5. The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Jandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:
Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
Ans: Not only age, gender and kinship ties but there were other factors too which were considered to prepare the list.
The Brahmana, the Purohits and the Gums were bestowed the highest honours. They all were widely respected.
Fraternal kins were also given respects who were considered like parents. People who were of equal age of younger were placed at the third rank. In the next order, the young Kuru warriors were respected.Women also received due place. Wives, mothers, daughters-in-law and daughters came in this order. Orphans and handicapped had also been taken care of. Yudhisthira also greets them.

6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature…. and contains so many kinds of things….(it) give(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.
Ans: Plenty of literary sources are available to reconstruct the ancient Indian history.
Mahabharata is one of them. It is an important literary and historical source. Its importance has been recognised even by the foreign writers. Its importance has also been recognised by Maurice Wintemitz because in his opinion the Mahabharata represents an entire literature. This great epic is full of various examples of different aspects of the Indians life. The reading of the Mahabharata gives a profound depth of the soul of the Indian folk. It has been written in simple Sanskrit and therefore widely understood.
Generally, historians classify the contents of the Mahabharata under two sections.They are narrative and didactic. Narrative section contains stories and didactic sections contains prescriptions about social norms. But at some instances, there were intermingling also.
Many historians believe that the Mahabharata was a dramatic, moving story and that the didactic portions were a later interpolation.
We get several different views about the authorship of the Mahabharata. It was believed that the original stories were composed by Sutas. Sutas were charioteer bards. They accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems celebrating their victories other achievements. These compositions were circulated orally. From the fifth, century BCE onwards, Brahmanas took over the story and started writing story.This great epic contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.
It describes kinship, political life of the said period, social priority. Major features of the family life such as patriliny, different forms of marriage and rules related with marriage, position of women in the society, social differences of the Indian society can be traced back to the period of the Mahabharata. This great epic also describes social mobility.

7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Ans: There are so much views about the author of the Mahabharata. Following views have been put forward regarding the authorship of the Mahabharata.
•It is believed that the original story was written by the charioteer-bards known as sutas. They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.
•It is also believed that in the beginning the text of the Mahabharata was orally circulated. Scholars and priests carried it from one generation to another. From the fifth century BCE, the Brahmanas took over the story and started writing.
This was the time when Kurus and Panchals were gradually becoming kingdoms.
The story of the Mahabharata also revolved round them. Some parts of the story reflect that old social values were replaced by the new ones.
• C. 200 BCE and 200 CE is another phase in the composition of the Mahabharata.
During this period worship of Vishnu was gaining ground Krishna came to be identified as Vishnu. Large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added during the period between C 200 and 400 CE. These interpolations made the Mahabharata an epic consisting of 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyas.

9. How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans: Gender differences in early societies were very important because it had effects on social life of men and women in the following ways :

• No share for women in the paternal estate : According to Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents. Women could not claim a share of these resources. Women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana.
• No hoarding by women : Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission.
• There was the ideal of patriliny under which sons could claim the resources, including the throne in the case of kings, of their fathers when the latter died.
• Gotra of women : Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage.
• Polygyny : Under polygyny, a man could have several wives. Satavahana rulers were polygynous.
• Wives to be treated as property of their husbands : Wives were treated as property of the husband because Yudhisthira after losing everything including himself had staked their common wife Draupadi in a game of dice and lost her too. However, Draupadi asked whether Yudhisthira after losing himself could stake her. The matter remained unresolved and ultimately Dhritarashtra restored to the Pandavas and Draupadi their personal freedom.

9. Discuss the evidence tliat suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and F marriage were not universally followed.
Ans: Brahmanical prescription about kinship and marriage:
Prescription about kinship:
According to Sanskrit texts the term “kula’ was used to designate families and jati for the larger network of kinfolk. The term ‘vamsha’ was used for lineage. Very often people belonging to the same family share food and other resources they live, work and perform rituals together. Families were considered as the part of larger networks of people defined as relatives a technical term used to defined them was kinfolk. While familial ties were considered “natural” and based on blood they can be defined in different ways.

For instance, some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas others, do not regard as from Historians retrieve information about elite families fairly easily from it is very hard reconstruct the familial relationship of ordinary people. Historians also try to analyse their attitudes towards family and kinship. These are important, because they provide an insight into people’s thinking. It is also expected ideas would have shaped their action because their actions may have led to changes in their attitudes.

Prescription about marriage:
For the continuity of the patrilineage the sons were considered important the daughters could not over the resources of their household. They were married into families outsidethe kin. This system was known as exogamy which means marrying outside one’s kin or gotra. The women of high status families were married to the right persons at right time. Kanayadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was considered as an important religious duty of the father. With the emergence of new means of communication people came into contact with each other and they began to share their view. So the Brahaman said down codes of their social behaviour. These codes regarding social behaviour were later on enshrined in Dharmashashtra. These text recognised eight types of marriage. Among these types of marriage the four were considered as good while the rest four as condemnable. Satvahana ruler did not follow exogamy of Brahmans.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answers.
Ans: The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers is not much different from those of the fatalists and materialists. This is brought out by the following arguments.
(i) The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.
(ii) Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of Jainism. But this also form the basic thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both the streams of the religion.
(iii) Upanishada believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without thinking of the consequences. Thus there is a lot of similarity between the two.
(iv) Both fatalists and materislists believe that human beings are made , of four elements, earth, water, sky, air and fire.
Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers Eire not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.

3. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.
Ans: The central teachings of Jainism are as follows :

• The entire world is animated – even stones, rocks and water have life.
• They believe in non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects.
• The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
• Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
• For Jainism monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.
• Jaina monks and nuns take five vows : to abstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observe celibacy, and to abstain from possessing property.

3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
Ans: Begums of Bhopal made a great contribution to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi. Following are the major contribution made by them.
(a) Shahejahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi.
(b) A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum.
(c) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.
(d) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They also contributed financially to preserve the stupa.

4. Read this short inscription and answer:
In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka, (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?
(d) What Buddhist text did she know?
(e) From whom dicTshe learn this text?
Ans: (a) Dhanavati dated her inscription that she placed the inscription at Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.
(b) I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisatta to show that Mahayana sect of Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during the reign of the Kushana rulers.
(c) She has mentioned her own mother’s sister’s name Buddhamita. The lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also mentioned Bhikkuni Bala and her parents.
(d) She knew the Tipitaka.
(e) She learnt the text from the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the Bala.

5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?
Ans: The important reasons why men and women joined sanghas could be as follows:
(а) Many of them wanted to renounce the worldly pleasures.
(b) They could study the Buddhist literature and philosophy by staying in the company of other monks.
(c) Many people entered sanghas to become priests and teachers of Buddhism.
(d) All were considered equal and the previous social identity was to be renounced.
(e) The environment of sanghas was democratic. The decision making within sanghas was based on voting. This attracted many and they took to the life of sanghas

6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Ans: Buddhist literature helps understanding the sculpture at Sanchi in the following ways :

1. A scene at the northern gateway at its first sight seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. However, the historians after studying the sculpture carefully, identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. It is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. The art historians acquire familiarity with biographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to Buddha’s biographies, Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early sculptures showed Buddha’s presence through symbols such as empty seat, stupa and the wheel. Such symbols can be understood only with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
3. It may be mentioned that one of the earliest modem art historians, James Ferguson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship because he was not familiar with Buddhist literature – most of which had not yet been translated. He, therefore, arrived at his conclusion by studying only the images on their own.

7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Ans: Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the love and devotion of the devotee to : the God.

This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and sculpture. The temples developed the house deities. The initial temples were small and simple. It was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it expanded, a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for the comfort of visitors.

Many of these temples were carved out of rocks. These artificial caves were turned into temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important were the Ajivikas, that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the rock-cut temple is the Kailash Nath temple of the 8th Century. It was carved out of a single piece rock. There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Ellora wherein the sculptor exclaims, “How did I make it!” Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in the sculpture. Shiva has been shown in the form of Linga. Many deities have shown in different forms, sometimes grotesque. There were also combination of man and animal forms.

8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Ans:

1. The rise of Vaishanavism and Shaivism led to worship of a chosen deity. This helped in the development of sculpture and architecture. For example, in the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the dieity. Ten avatars were recognised within the tradition. It is possible that different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Each of these local deities was recognised as a form of Vishnu. It, therefore, created a more unified religious tradition.
2. Some of these forms were represented in sculptures as in one figure the Varaha or boar avatar of Vishnu has been shown as rescuing the earth goddess. Under Shaivism, Shiva was symbolised by the linga. He was represented in the human form too. The deities and their attributes were depicted through symbols such as head-dresses, ornaments and ayudhas – weapons or auspicious objects the deities hold in their hands etc.
3. At the same time, the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, temples were made to house images of gods and goddesses. The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image. Later on, shikhara was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were decorated with sculpture.
4. Artificial caves were built and ultimately it led to the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnath.

9. Of the religious traditions discussed in this chapter, is there any that is practised in your neighbourhood? What are the religious texts used today, an how are they preserved and transmitted? Are images used in worship? If so, are these similar to or different from those described in this chapter? Describe the buildings used for religious : activities today, comparing them with early stupas and temples.
Ans: The chapter discuss the religious traditions of ancient India which included, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, so on. As I live in the walled city of Delhi have seen people practising all these traditions.

The religious textbooks of all religions are preserved and kept with great respect. They have been translated in many languages including many regional languages of the country. Now they are also preserved in the form of CD and other modern devices. Images are also used by worshippers of these religions. The Hindus deities have almost same images as they had in the past. Jains and Buddhists also use images.Temples are used by hindus, buddhists and jams. Mosques are made by muslims and churches by the Christians. The structure of all these are different but with some similarities too.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Write a note on the Kitab-ul-Hind.
Ans: Kitab-ul-Hind was written by Al-Biruni in 1031. It was considered with India and also known by the name of Tarikh-ul-Hind and Tahqiq-ma-ul-Hind. It was written in Arabic. It is divided into 80 Chapters. They have thrown a detailed light on Hindu religions and philosphy, festivals, customs and tradition, the social and economic as well as political life of the people. In each chapter he adopted a distinctive style and had a question in the beginning. It was followed by a description based on Sanskrit tradition, At last he compare the India culture with other culture. This geometric structure he followed is known for its precision and predictability. The main reason for this structure was Al-Biruni’s mathematical orientation.

2. Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India.
Ans: Ibn Battuta was an early globe-trotter. He considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books. He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs and values. He enjoyed the cosmopolitan culture of urban centres where people who spoke Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages, shared ideas, information and anecdotes. He highlighted unfamiliar things in order to ensure that the listener or the reader was suitably impressed by accounts of distant yet accessible worlds. For example, he described the coconut and the paan which was completely unfamiliar to his readers. Thus, Ibn Battuta described everything that impressed and excited him because of its novelty.

Francois Bernier, on the other hand, belonged to a different intellectual tradition. He tried to compare and contrast what he saw in India with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular, focusing on situations which he considered depressing. His idea was to influence the policy makers and intelligentsia to ensure that they made what he considered to be the “right” decisions. He compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe. He emphasised the superiority of Europe. His representation of India works on the model of binary opposition, where India is presented as the inverse of Europe. He also ordered the perceived differences hierarchically, so that India appeared to be inferior to the Western world.

3. Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier’s accout.
Ans: During the 17th century nearly 15% of population was living in town. This was average proportion of urban population of western Europe. Bernier described Mughal towns as court towns. By it he meant those towns which depended upon the imperial court for their existence and survival. These towns came into existence with the imperial court and declined with the impanel court when they moved to other places. In his travel accounts, Bernier described many big towns and cities such as Delhi, Mathura, Kashmir, Surat, Masulipatnam and Golconda. These gained importance as manufacturing centres, trading towns, and sacred towns. The merchant communities had deep influence in these cities. They remained organised due to their own caste and occupational bodies. These trading groups were known as Mahajans in western India. Their head was called Sheth. In Ahmedabad, the chief of Merchant community was known as nagarsheth. Besides the trading groups, musicians, architects, painters, lawyers, calligraphies, etc. lived in towns.

4. Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn Battuta.
Ans: Battuta has given a detailed description on the practice of slavery prevalent in India. Delhi Sultan-Muhammad bin Tughlaq had a large number of slaves. Most of these slaves were forcibly captured during the aggressions. Many people sold their children as a slave, because of acute poverty. Slaves were also offered as a gift during this time. Battuta when visited him, also brought many horses, camels and slaves for the Sultan to present him. Sultan Muhammad bin Tuglaq, himself had presented two hundred slaves to Nasiruddin a religious preacher.

Nobels are used to keep slave those days. Through these slaves, the Sultan used to get information about the activities of the noble and all other important events of the empire.

The woman slaves served as servants in the house of the rich (nobles). These women informed the Sultan about the activities of their masters (i.e., nobles). Most of the slaves used to do domestic works and there was a lot of difference between the status of these slaves and the court slaves.

5. What were the elements of the practice of sati that drew the attention of Bernier?
Ans: The practice of sati according to Bernier showed the difference in the treatment of women in western and eastern society. He noticed how a child widow were forcefully burnt screaming on the funeral pyre while many of the older women were resigned their fate.
The following elements drew his attention.
(i) Under this cruel practices an alive widow was forcibly made to sit on the pyre of her husband.
(ii) People had no sympathy for her.
(iii) The widow was an unwilling victim of the sati-practice. She was forced to be a Sati.

6. Discuss Al-Biruni’s understanding of the caste system.
Ans: Al-Biruni’s description about caste system as he understood. Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking far parallels in other societies. He described that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised.
(i) knight and princes.
(ii) monks
(iii) fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers, other scientists;
(iv) Finally, peasants and artisans. He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.

His description of the caste system in India was deeply influenced by his study of Sanskrit texts. According to these texts, the highest castes were the Brahmins as they were created from the head of the Brahmins.

The Kshatriyas were the next caste created from the shoulders and hands of the Brahmin. The Vaishyas and Shudras were created from the thighs and feet of the Brahmin respectively.

Thus, he sought to understand the Indian caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. Nothing that ancient Persian society was divided into four categories he realized that social division was not unique to India.

But despite accepting the caste system he was against the notion of pollution. He believed that according to the laws of nature anything which becomes impure ultimately becomes pure again, e.g. the sun clears the air. The concept of social pollution is the bedrock of the caste system. Thus, the caste system was according to him contrary to the laws of nature.

He failed to realize that the caste system was not as rigid as portrayed in the Sanskrit texts.

7. Do you think Ibn Battuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres ? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans: Ibn Battuta found cities full of opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. According to Ibn Battuta, it appears that most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets. He described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India. In his description of Delhi, he stated, “The rampart around the city is without parallel. … It has many towers …. There are twenty eight gates of this city which are called darwaza.” The bazaars were centres of economic, social and cultural activities.

1. The Ibn Battuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres because the description seems to be correct. For example, the older cities in India have crowded streets and bazaars full of variety of goods. Delhi was and still is a vast city. The older portion of Delhi has crowded streets and its bazaars are full of all types of goods.
2. In addition to above it may be stated that when Ibn Battuta arrived in Delhi in the fourteenth century, the subcontinent was part of a global network of communication that stretched from China in the east to north-west Africa and Europe in the west.
3. The Indian agriculture was also productive due to fertility of the soil. This led to prosperity of towns because the towns derived a significant portion of their wealth through the appropriation of surplus from villages.
4. The Indian goods were in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia which fetched huge profits for artisans, merchants and Indian textiles.

8. Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s accounts enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.
Ans: Bernier’s assessment about Indian rural society was not correct. It was far away from the truth, but it is not acceptable. There are some truth in his description which are evident from the following facts.
(i) According to his account, mughal empire was the owner of the land and distributed among its nobles. It had a disastrous impact on the society.
(ii) According to him the system of crown of ownership of land was good. It was because, the land holders could not pass on their land to their children. They did not make any long term investment on the land.
(iii) As there was no private property in land, there was not any improvement in the landlord class. This system ruin agriculture and led to opinion of peasants. Bernier’s view regarding Indian society had the following features:
(i) The rich people Were in minority.
(ii) It had the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich, no middle class existed there.
(iii) All the cities and towns were reined and had contaminated air.

9. Read this excerpt from Bernier:

List the crafts mentioned in the passage. Compare these with the descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter.
Ans: I. Names of the crafts mentioned in this passage.
In this passage the crafts such as making of muskets and following pieces and making beautiful gold ornaments are mentioned. These products were beautifully made. Bernier was amazed to see these products.
II. Comparison of crafts referred in the passage with the description of artisanal activity in the chapter.
(i) In the chapter boat manufacturing and terracottan sculpture and temple architecture has been mentioned.
(ii) Art of painting has been referred.
(iii) Art of carpet manufacturing has been referred.
(iv) Art of dance, music and calligraphy have been referred in the chapter.
(v) Description about Rajal Khamos have also been mentioned.

10. On an outline map of the world, mark the countries visited by Ibn Battuta. What are the seas that he might have crossed?
Ans: Countries visited by Ibn Battuta:
(i) Morocco
(ii) Mecca
(iii) Syria
(iv) Iraq
(v) Persia
(vi) Yamen
(vii) Oman
(viii) China
(ix) India
(x) Maldives
(xi) Sri Lanka
(xii) Sumatra (Indonesia)
Name of Seas:
(i) North Atlantic Ocean
(ii) South Atlantic Ocean
(iii) Indian Ocean
(iv) Red Sea
(v) Arabian Sea
(vi) Bay of Bengal
(vii) South China Sea
(viii) East China Sea.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts 

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Ans: During the period of the 10th Century to the 17th Century, an important trend noticed in the religious life in India is the worship of God in many forms. Many God and Goddesses appear in the scultures and texts but they are various forms of the original deities only. These original deities are Vishnu, Shiva, and Goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati.
Historians have noticed the two marked trends in the socio-religious life of those days. The first was dissemination of the Brahminical ideas. The Brahminical texts were reproduced in simple Sanskrit. They were now made available to women and shudras, who did not have access to Brahminical literature by and large. The second was the Brahmins who were working on the beliefs and practices. It was a process of evolution, wherein traditional classical traditions were getting new shapes continuously as they were being impacted by the traditions of common people throughout the land.
Now let us look at the two of the following examples.
1.A very good example of the above description is the temple of Jagannatha at Puri
in Orissa. The temple is of Lord Jagannatha who is another form of Vishnu only. The word Jagannatha means one who owns the world.
2.There were many local gods; their statues were often created by wood and stones by tribals. Even families began to have Kul Devata. The Goddeses were also created in wood and stone. They all were in various forms only often of Vishnu.

2. To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
Ans: The architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions in a significant way. Some architectural features of mosques are universal – such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However, there are variations in roofs and building materials. For example, a mosque in Kerala (c. thirteenth century) has the shikhara-like roof. Atiya mosque in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh was built with brick. The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, on the banks of Jhelum is often regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of all the existing mosques of Kashmir was built in 1395. It ig one of the best examples of Kashmiri wooden architecture. It has the spire and the beautifully carved eaves. It is decorated with papier mache.

3. What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions?
Ans: Shari’a is the Islamic law that is applied in a truly Islamic country. The Shari’a law owes its origin to the Holy book of Quran, Hadis (Law book of Islam) and teachings of Prophet Muhammad.
In the medieval ages the Islamic world witnessed a big social and religious movement called Sufi movement. Sufi movement was the people-centric and not God-centric. It believed serving people was the real form of worship. Sufi movement has had many branches too. One group of Sufi preachers took very radical path. They were mystics who renounced material world took to the life of asceticism. Further they also rejected the supremacy of the Shari’a laws. Such sufis were called be-shari‘a.

On the other hand , there were sufi saints who criticised the extravagant lifestyle of monarchs and Khaliphates but did not reject Shari’a laws. For them Shari’a laws were sacrosant. These Sufi saints have been called be-shari‘a.

4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Ans: The early Bhakti Movement was led by Alvars and Nayanars. It was the period of the 6th Century. Alvars are those who were disciples of Vishnu and Nayanars were those who claimed themselves the followers of Lord Shiva. They travelled place to place and would sing devotional songs in Tamil in the name of Shiva or Vishnu as the case may be. Apart from being a religious movement, it was a social movement too. Many historians are of the view that Alvars and Nayanars gave a blow to the caste system and Brahminism. This is corroborated by the fact that the movement was open to people from diverse background. The Bhaktas came from the castes of Brahmin to artisans to even those that were considered untouchables.
Virashaivas was a movement of the 12th Century that took place in Karnataka. The movement was led by a Brahmin named Basavanna (1106-68), who was a minister in the court of Chalukya king. The followers of Basavanna are called Virashaivas and they worshipped Shiv. They were also called and perhaps more often Lingayats, which literary means wearer of Lingas. They challenged the caste system and they challenged the idea of any caste being pollutant. This helped them grow support among marginalised sections of the society. Virashaivas also attacked some evil practices
supposedly not approved by Shashtras, such as post puberty marriage and remarriage of widows. Further they also questioned the theory of rebirth.

5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Guru Nanak and the way they have been transmitted. (or)
Explain the teachings of Guru Nanak. Did he want to establish a new religion?
Ans: Kabir is a great poet-cum-saint of Indian society. He has had appeal among Hindus and Muslims alike as it is believed that he was bom as Hindu but was brought up by a muslim couple. He wrote poems that exhorted both communities to take to social reforms.
The major teachings of Kabir were as follows:
1. Kabir described God as nirankar (having no shape). He used the terms drawn from Islamic tradition like Allah, Khuda, Hajrat and Peer but also used words of Vedic traditions like Alakh ( (the unseen) and nirakar ( the formless). Thus, he freely took to both traditions viz. Islamic and Vedantic.
2. He repudiated idol worship and polytheism.
3. He emphasised on the oneness of God though there can be many names of His.
4. He criticised religious rituals of hindus and muslims alike.
5. He also preached against caste discrimination.
6. He combined the Sufi traditions of love of God with the Hindi tradition of remembrance of God.
7. He also emphasised the dignity of labour.
Thus, the essence of the teachings of Kabir was simple living based on love and respect all. He wrote in simple language to be understood by common man of the country.
Guru Nanak and his teachings
Guru Nanak was born in a Hindu family in 1469 at Nankana Saheb on the bank of the river Ravi. His birth place is now in Pakistan. He learnt Persian, Arabic , Hindi and Mathematics. He spent time in the company of Sufi saints and Bhaktas of various socio-religious movements.
The major teachings of Guru Nanak are as follows:
1. He rejected the religious texts of both Hindus and Muslims.
2. He preached God is Nirakar viz. without any shape.
3. He criticised the religious practices like ceremonial bath, sacrifices , idol worship, and emphasised simplicity.
4. He called upon his followers to connect to divine by remembering and repeating the divine name.
Guru Nanak expressed himself in Punjabi, the language of the local people in a lyrical form called Shabad. Shabad can be recited in various ragas.

6. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.
Ans: The major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism are as given below –

1. Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
2. They were against the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and sunna adopted by theologians.
3. They laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God.
4. They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and suggested to follow his example.
5. Sufis organised communities around the khanqah controlled by a shaikh, pir or murshid.
6. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment and shaved their hair.
7. After the death of the shaikh, his tomb-shrine or dargah became the centre of devotion for his followers who performed pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave on the occasion of death anniversary or urs.

7. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the sufis.
Ans: Nayanars were the worshippers of Lord Shiva. It gained a shape of powerful Bhakti movement in South India in 6th Century onwards. Apart from being popular with the people, the movement got support and patronage of the rulers of the time. This is manifested by the following facts:
1. A major part of South India was ruled by Chola Kings during the period 9th to 13th Century. They gave great patronage to the Bhakti movement saints including Nayanars. Thus, they did by making grants of land and constructing temples of Shiva and Vishnu for the saints of Bhakti movement.
2. The most beautiful temples of Shiva of South India, namely, at Chidambaram, Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
3. During the same period some of the most spectacular representation of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced. All this was possible because the rulers patronised the Nayanars.
4. Nayanars had considerable following among farmers.
The rulers tried to establish connections with the Nayanars and this is explained by the aforesaid description. The reason why they did is not far to seek. One reason could be to bring sanctity to the their rule. By giving alms to the temple and the preachers of Nayanar sect the rulers also announced their wealth and might. Next such acts might have endeared the rulers to the masses.
Sufi Tradition and the rulers of Delhi Sultnate and Mughals:
In the 12th Century, Delhi and a considerable part of India fell to the rule of Muslim rulers. This rule is known as the period of Delhi Sultanate. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate claimed themselves under Khalifate of Kabul and tried to legitimize their rule. The next step could have been establishing the rule of Shari‘a laws. However, the rulers realised for the very beginning that it was impractical. Under the Delhi Sultanate most of the people were not Muslim. Shari’a laws were not feasible also because lacked flexibity which a ruler needed to govern. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate wanted to take a practical path of governance without renouncing Islam. Sufi tradition gave them this opportunity. The same idea prevailed during the rule of the great Mughals too. Hence the rulers of Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire adopted the tradition of sufism.

8. Analyses, illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.
Ans: In medieval India, though Sanskrit and Persian may be the language of the educated people or at the court, the vast number of people living in villages conversed in the local languages. It was, therefore, needed that the Bhakti and Sufi saints preached in the languages of the common people. This was in fact essential in order to make these movement truly popular.
This is manifested in the following examples:
1. The traditional Bhakti saints composed the hymns in Sanskrit. Such hymns were sung on special occasions often within temples.
2. The Nayanars and the Alvars were wandering saints. They travelled far and
wide, often walking on foot. They met people in different villages. These saints would sing the verses in praise of God all in the language of the local people only. The language was Tamil only. These travelling saints established temples where prayers took place in Tamil and the devotional songs were composed by the Bhakti Saints.
3. In North India the language was different. Here too the saints took to the language of the common people. Guru Nanak created Shabad all in Punjabi. Baba Farid and Swami Raidas (Ravidas) all composed in Punjabi and Hindustani.
4. Kabirdas who lived in Benaras, wrote in local language which was closer to Hindustani. He used words there part of local dialect.
5. The Sufi tradition of singing on tombs carried on in the language of the local people only. The shrines were the place of Sama sung in Hindustani or Hindavi. Another Sufi Saint Baba Farid composed in Punjabi too that even became part of Guru Granth Sahib.
6. Some other saints wrote in Kannada, Tamil and other languages too.
Thus, we are inclined to agree with the view that the Saints of Bhakti and Sufi Movement composed in many languages and the languages of the common people to connect with them.

9. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.
Ans: The social and religious ideas that are expressed in five of the sources are given below :

1. Source 1. The Chaturvedin Brahmana versed in the four Vedas) and the “outcastes”- In this source Tondaradippodi has opposed the caste system by stating that the “outcastes” who express their love for Vishnu are better than the ‘Chaturvedins” who are strangers and without allegiance towards Vishnu.
2. Sources 4. Rituals and the real world – In this source Basavanna who led the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka opposed the Brahmanical rituals. In his vachana, he describes that the followers of Brahmanical traditions on seeing a serpent carved in stone, they pour milk on it but when they see a real serpent, they try to kill him. It implies that the rituals are useless.
3. Sources 5. A church in Khambat – It is about a farman (imperial order) issued by Akbar in 1598 to the people of Khambat that no one should stand in the way of construction of a church there but should allow the padris (fathers) to build a church. This proves that Akbar followed a policy of religious toleration and people were allowed to follow any religion in his empire.
4. Source 6. Reverence for the Jogi – It is an excerpt from a letter by Aurangzeb to a Jogi in 1661-62 sending him a piece of cloth and twenty-five rupees. It shows that till 1661-62, Aurangzeb was following a policy of religious toleration and granted help to non-Muslims. It was only later on 1678 that Aurangzeb imposed Jaziya on non-Muslims.
5. Source 7. The pilgrimage of the Mughal princess Jahanara, 1643 – It is about Jahanara’s pilgrimage to the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti in which she has narrated her experience. This shows that the sufi saints were revered by the royal family too. The Emperor and the members of the royal family used to visit their tombs or dargah to seek their blessings.

10. On an outline map of India, plot three major sufi shrines and three places associated with temples (one each of a form of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess.)
Ans:

11. Choose any two of the religious teachers/thinkers/saints mentioned in this chapter, and find out more about their lives and teachings. Prepare a report about the area and the times in which they lived, their major ideas, how do we know about them, and why you think they are important?
Ans: Following are the two saints of the Bhakti movement who are described as follows:
Guru Nanak:
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten Gurus of the Sikhs, was born in the village of Talwandi on 15th April, 1469. The village now is known as Nankana Sahib. He belonged to a Khatri caste. Before Guru Nanak departed for his heavenly abode on 22nd Sept., 1539, his name had travelled not only throughout India’s north, south, east and west, but also far beyond into Arabia, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Afghanistan, Turkey, Burma and Tibet.
His teachings included:
Equality of humans: Guru Nanak preached against discrimination and prejudices due to race, caste, status, etc. He said: “See the brotherhood of all mankind as the highest order of Yogis; conquer your own mind, and conquer the world.”
Universal message for all people: Normally preachers confined their preachings to the men of their own religion. But Nanak reached out. He spoke to hindus and muslims both and said to all “To take what rightfully belongs to another is like a muslim eating pork, or a hindu eating beef.”
Equality of women: Nanak promoted women’s rights and equality—a first for the 15th century! He asked:
“From woman, man is born; within woman, man is conceived; to woman he is engaged and married. Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come. When his woman dies, he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound. So should why we call her bad?
Namdeo
Saint Namdeo was born in the year 1270 in the village of Narasi-Bamani, now located in the Hingoli District in Maharashtra. He is a great Saint Poet of Maharashtra. He was one of the earliest writers who wrote in the Marathi language. He is the foremost proponent of the Bhagwad-Dharma who reached beyond Maharashtra, right into Punjab. He also wrote some hymns in Hindi and Punjabi, Namdev travelled through many parts of India, reciting his religious poems. In difficult times, he played the difficult role of uniting the pendle of Maharashtra spiritually, He is said to have lived for more than twenty years in the village of Ghuman in the Gurdaspur district of Punjab. The Sikh brethren in Punjab consider him one.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. What are the problems in using the Ain as a source for reconstructing agrarian history? How do historians deal with this situation?
Ans: (a) The Ain-i Akbari written by Abu’l Fazl in 1598 contains invaluable information for reconstructing the agrarian history of the Mughals. But it has its own limitations.
(b) Numerous errors in totalling have been detected. These are, however, minors and do not detract from the overall quantitative accuracy of the manuals.
(c) Another limitation is the skewed nature of the data. Data was not collected uniformly from all provinces. For example, Abu’l Fazl has not given any description regarding the caste composition of the zamindars of Bengal and Orissa (Odisha).
(d) The fiscal data collected from various sources is in detail yet some important parameters such as, wages and prices have not been incorporated properly.
(e) The detailed list of prices and wages found in the Ain-i Akbari have been acquired from data pertaining to the capital Agra and its surrounding regions. It is, therefore, of limited value for the rest of the empire.
(f) Historians have dealt with the situation by supplementing the account of the Ain by information got from the provinces. These include detailed seventeenth- eighteenth centuries revenue records from Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. These have been also supplemented by records of the East India Company.

2. To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture ? Give reasons for your answer.
Solution :
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the abundance of land, available labour and the mobility of peasants were three factors that were responsible for the constant expansion of agriculture. As rice, wheat or millets were the most frequently cultivated crops, it is said that the primary purpose of agriculture was to feed people. But the focus on the cultivation of basic staples did not mean that the agriculture was only for subsistence due to the following reasons :

1. Crops such as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i kamil or perfect crops. The Mughal state encouraged peasants to cultivate such crops as they brought in more revenue. Thus, cotton was grown over a vast territory spread over Central India and the Deccan plateau, whereas Bengal was famous for its sugar.
2. Cash crops such as all sorts of oil seeds and lentils were also grown.
3. Dining the seventeenth century, new crops such as maize (makka) reached India via Africa and Spain. It became one of major crops of western India.
4. Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chilies were introduced from the New World. New fruits – pineapple and the papaya too reached India. All these were grown by the peasants.

Thus, it was not subsistence agriculture but subsistence and commercial were mixed together in an average peasants’ holding.

3. Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Ans: (a) Women played an important role in agricultural production. They worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. The men tilled and ploughed the lands whilethe women sowed, weeded and threshed the harvest. Agricultural production at the time was carried out with the labour and resources of the entire.
(b) The women performed important tasks such as spinning yarn, kneading clay for pottery and embroidery. Thus, the peasant women who were skilled artisans worked not only in the fields but even went to their employer’s houses and even to the markets, if necessary.
(c) Among the landed gentry class women had the right to inherit property. Women, including widows participated in the rural land market. Selling property which they had inherited especially in Punjab.
(d) Both Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris. They were free to sell or mortgage their zamidari rights. In eighteenth century, Bengal had many women- zamindars. In fact, the Rajshah zamindari which was one of the most famous of the time was headed by a woman.

4. Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
Ans: (i) The political stability provided by the Mughal helped in establishing hoarsening trade relation with Ming (china), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman (Turkey) empires. It led to increase in outland trade from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
(ii) The Discovery of new lands and sea routes also gave an impetus to Asia’s trade with Europe. As a result enormous amount of silver entered India as payment for goods bought from India.
(iii) Jovanni Karari, an Italian traveller, who passed through India in 1690 has written how the silver reached India from all parts of the world. From his description, we also came to know how there was an exchange of cash and goods in India in the 17th century.
(iv) This benefitted India as she did not have enough resources of silver. Therefore, from the sixteenth to the eighteeth centuries there was sufficient reserves of silver in India and the silver rupya was available readily.
(v) The mutual exchange in villages took place. As villagers established their links in the urban markets, there was a considerable increase in monetary transactions. In this way, villages became an important part of the monetary market.
(vi) It was due to the monetary transactions, became easier to pay daily wages to the labourers in cash and not in kind. This resulted in an unprecedented expansion in the minting of coins and circulation of money allowing the Mughal state to extract taxes and revenues in cash.

5. Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Ans: The following evidence suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system :

1. As the land revenue was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire, there was an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production, and to fix and collect revenue in the empire. There was diwan who was responsible for supervision of the fiscal system of the empire.
2. Information about the agricultural lands and their production was collected before fixing the amount of taxes on people.
3. The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages – assessment and the collection.
4. Amil-guzar or revenue collector was directed to give choice to cultivators to pay in cash or kind. The payment in cash was preferred.
5. While making assessment of land revenue, the state officials tried to maximise its claims.
6. The Ain compiled the aggregates of cultivated and cultivable lands. The classification of lands was made under Akbar and a different land revenue to be paid by each was fixed.

6. To what extent to do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society?
Ans: (i) Cultivators were divided on the basis of their caste and other caste-like distinctions or caste-based distinctions. Thus, among the peasants were many who worked as agricultural labourers (majurs) or worked as manacles. Thus, they were not allowed to live in villages. They resided outside the village and were assigned to do menial tasks and lacked resources. Thus, they were poverty-stricken.
(ii) Caste distinctions had also begun to permeate other communities as well. In Muslim communities menials were like halkhoron (scavengers). A direct relation existed between caste poverty and social status.
(iii) In the seventeenth century Marwar Rajputs are described as peasants and equated with jats. They were given an inferior status in the caste hierarchy.
(iv) Castes like Ahirs, Gujjars and Malis reached and elevated status in the eastern regions.
(v) The pastoral and fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivatas acquired the status of peasants.

7. How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?(or)
Describe the lives of forest-dwellers in the 16-17th centuries.
Ans: Transformation in the lives of forest-dwellers (sixteenth and seventeenth centuries):
(i) Huge areas were covered with forests in the various parts of India in the 16th and 17th country. Forest-dwellers were called Jangli. The term ‘Jungli’ was used to describe those whose occupations included activities such as hunting, gathering of forest produce, and shifting cultivation. These activities were performed according to a specific reason in the various regions. Consider the example of the Bhils who fished in summer and collected forest produce in spring. Such activities enabled the forest tribes to be mobile which was a characteristic feature of their life.
(ii) As the state required elephants for the consolidation of mighty army, the peskesh levied on the forest people to supply of elephants.
(iii) The lives of the forest-dwellers led to the spread of commercial agriculture. Forest products like honey, beeswax, gum and lac were in huge demand. Gum and lac became major items of overseas exports in the seventeenth century and earned valuable foreign exchange.
(iv) Elephants were also captured and sold.
(v) Tribes like the Punjab Lohanis engaged in overland trade with Afghanistan and internal trade in Punjab as well.
(vi) Social factors were also responsible for transforming the lives of the forest- dwellers.
(vii) Many tribal chiefs became zamindars, some even became kings. They recruit people from their own tribes in their army For example in Assam, the Ahom Kings depended on people who rendered military services in exchange of land.
(viii) By the sixteenth century, the transition from a tribal to a monarchial system had taken place. In Ain-i Akbari description has been mentioned about the existence of tribal kingdoms in north-eastern India. Description is also made regarding the kings who fought and conquered a number of tribes. New cultural influences also entered in the forested areas. Probably sufi saints played a remarkable role in spreading Islam in these areas.

8. Examine the role played by zamindars in Mughal India.
Ans: The zamindars were the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production, but they enjoyed high status in the society.
(i) The zamindars considered their land as their property (milkiyat). They had control to sell, give and mortage their property.
(ii) They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in society.
(iii) The zamindars belonged to the upper caste which added to their exalted status in society.
(iv) The zamindars rendered certain services (khidmat) for the state. As a result of their service they received and attained higher position in the state.
(v) The zamindars had the right to collect revenue on behalf of the state and also received financial compensation for this work.
(vi) The zamindars had kept strict control over the military resources of the state. They kept a fortress and a well knit armed unit comprising cavalry, artillery, and infantry.
(vii) The zamindars also played significant role in developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments. It resulted in an increase in agricultural produce and the sale and purchase of land by the zamindars. There are also evidences that the zamindars held bazaars. The farmers came to these bazaars to sell their crops.
(viii) If we observe social relation of village of Mughal age as a pyramid then zamindars were at the top. They occupied the highest position in the society.
(ix) No doubt the zamindars exploited the people but their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary part on age. So, they were able to get peasants in case of the revolt against the state.

9. Discuss the ways in which panchayat and village headmen regulated rural society.(or)
Explain the role of Panchayats in the Mughal rural Indian society during 16th-17th centuries.
Ans: Regulation of rural society by panchayats and headmen:
(i) Meaning of panchayat: The village panchayat consisted of an assembly of elders, they represent different castes and communities except the menial class. Usually important were people of the village with hereditary right over their property.
(ii) General composition and function: In the mixed caste village, the panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. The panchayet represented different castes and communities in the village.
The village panchayat was headed by Muqaddam also known as mandal. He was elected with consensus of the village elders and remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of village elders. His function was to prepare village account with the help of patwari.
(i) The main function of panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.
(ii) It had also the authority to levy fines and taxes.
(iii) It can also give punishment like expulsion from the community.
(iv) Each Jati in the village had its own Jati panchayat. Jati Panchayat wielded considerable power in the society. In Rajasthan, the Jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members of the different castes. It also mediated in disputes claims on land, decided whether marriages had been performed according to that castes norm, etc. In most cases, the state respected the decisions taken by the Jati Panchayat.
(v) The panchayats were also regarded as the court of appeal, that would ensure that the state carried out its moral responsibilities.
(vi) For justice petitions were often made to the panchayat collectively by a group of caste or a community protesting against what they considered to be morally illegitimate demands on the part of elites.
(vii) In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat often suggested a compromise. If this failed, the peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of punishment such as deserting the village.

10. On an outline map of world, mark the areas which had economic links with the Mughal Empire, and trace out possible routes of communication.
Ans: Iran, Afghanistan, China, the countries of Central and Western Asia, Italy, Portugal, France, Britain, Holland, etc.
Possible Routes : Trade that linked to Mughal Empire in India.
(i) Sea route via Atlantic ocean to Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.
(ii) Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal to China Sea.
(iii) Land Route from Central Asia to Afghanistan through modem Pakistan upto Kerala or Goa.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles The Mughal Courts 

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal court.
Ans: Process of manuscript production in the Mughal court included the following:
(a) Paper-maker’s responsibility was to prepare the folios of the manuscript.
(b) Skill writer, i.e. scribes or calligrapher copied the texts.
(c) Guilders, illuminated the pages of the manuscript.
(d) Miniature painter illustrated the scene from the text.
(e) The book binders gathered the folio and gave it to the original shape of a book.

2. In what ways would the daily routine and special festivities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor?
Ans: The daily routine and special festivities associated with the Mughal court would have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor in the following ways :

1. The emperor, after personal religious prayers, appeared on a small balcony for Jharoka darshan, before a crowd of people for darshan of the emperor. The Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of the popular faith.
2. The focus of the physical arrangement of the court was on the sovereign. It mirrored his status as the heart of society. Its centrepiece was, therefore, the throne, the takht which gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as pillar.
3. The rules regarding status of the Mughal elites were laid down with great precision. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the emperor.
4. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move from his position or to leave without permission.
5. Whenever the court or darbar was held, all who had admittance were required to make the kornish.
6. The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the hierarchy. Deeper prostration represented higher status.
7. The diplomatic envoys like ambassador were expected to offer an acceptable form of greeting — either by bowing deeply or kissing the ground or else to follow the Persian custom of clasping one’s hands in front of the chest.
8. Special occasions such as Id, Shab-i barat anniversary of accession to the throne, festivals — the solar and lunar birthdays of the monarch were celebrated in such a way that left tremendous impression on visitors.
9. Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of coronation or after a victory over an enemy.
10. Mughal coins carried the full title of the reigning emperor with regal protocal.
11. A courtier always approached the emperor with gifts. He generally offered a small sum of money (nazr) or a large amount (peshkash).
12. Even in diplomatic relations, gifts were regarded as a sign of honour and respect.

3. Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire
Ans: (i) The term “haram” is used to describe the domestic world of the Mughals. This word is taken from the Persian word haram, which means a sacred place.
(ii) The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives (mother, step- and foster-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts, children, etc.), and female servants and slaves.
(iii) Polygamy was practised widely in the Indian subcontinent, especially among the ruling groups. Both for the Rajput clans as well as the Mughals marriage was a way of cementing political relationships and forging alliances.
(iv) The gift of territory was often accompanied by the gift of a daughter in marriage. This ensured a continuing hierarchical relationship between ruling groups. It was through the link of marriage and the relationships that developed as a result that the Mughals were able to form a vast kinship network that linked them to important groups and helped to hold a vast empire together.
(v) In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth.
(vi) The begams, married after receiving huge amounts of cash and valuables as dowry (maahr), naturally received a higher status and greater attention from their husbands than did aghas. The concubines (aghacha or the lesser agha) occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females intimately related to royalty.
(vii) The agha and the aghacha could rise to the position of a begam depending on the husband’s will, and provided that he did not already have four wives.
(viii) Love and motherhood played important roles in elevating such women to the status of legally wedded wives. Apart from wives, numerous male and female slaves populated the Mughal Household. The tasks they performed varied from the most mundane to those requiring skill, tact and intelligence.
(xi)Slave eunuchs (khwajasara) moved between the external and internal life of the household as guards, servants, and also as agents for women dabbling in commerce.

4. What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinent?
Ans: (i) The Safavids and Qandahar: The political and diplomatic relations between , the Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar. The fortress-town Qandahar had initially been in the possession of Humayun, reconquered in 1595 by Akbar.The Safavid court retained diplomatic relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake.claims to Qandahar. Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas in 1613 to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandahar, but the mission failed to achieve its objectives. Persian army besieged Qandahar in 1622. The Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the Safavids.

(ii) The Ottomans: pilgrimage and trade: The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans ensured free movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottoman Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located.
The Mughal emperor combined religion and commerce by exporting essential goods to Aden and Mokha, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of shrines and religious men there.

(iii) Jesuits at the Mughal court: European received knowledge about India through the accounts of Jesuit missionaries, travellers, merchants and diplomats. After the discovery of sea route to India, the Portuguese merchants set up their trading network stations in coastal region. The Portuguese was also interested in the spread of Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of Jesuits. The Christian missions who sent to India during the sixteenth century were part of this process of trade and empire building. The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court of Mughal emperor Akbar at Fatehpur oikri in 1580 and stayed here for about two years. The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulema. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595. The Jesuit accounts are based on personal observation and shed light on the character and mind of the emperor. At public assemblies the Jesuits were assigned places in close proximity to Akbar’s throne.. The Jesuit accounts corroborate the information given in Persian chronicles about state officials and the general conditions of life in Mughal times.

5. Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces ?
Ans:

1. The Mughal provincial administration was like the central administration as mentioned below :
   • There were diwan, bakhshi and sadr corresponding the central ministers – Diwan-i ala, mir-bakshi and sadr-us sudur.
   • The head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar) who directly reported to the emperor.
   • A suba was divided into sarkars.
   • Faujdars were deployed with contingents of heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts.
   • At the local level were parganas which were looked after by the qanungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and the qazi.
   • There was clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers and other functionaries who were technically qualified officials. They functioned with standardised rules and procedures.
   • Persian was the language of the administration but local languages were used for village accounts.
2. The Mughal emperor and his court controlled the entire administrative apparatus down to the village level. However, the relationship between local landed magnates, the zamindars, and the representatives of the Mughal emperor was sometimes marked by conflicts over authority and a share of the resources. Moreover, after the death of Aurangzeb the provincial governors became powerful and this led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire.

6. Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of Mughal chronicles.
Ans: (i) Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire and its court. They were written in order to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella. The authors of
Mughal chronicles focused on events-related to life of the ruler, their family, the court and nobles, wars and administrative
system.

(ii) These chronicles were written in Persian. This language flourished as a language of the court and of literary writings, alongside north Indian languages, especially Hindavi and its regional variants. As the Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was their mother tongue.

(iii) Chronicles narrating the events of a Mughal emperor’s reign contained, alongside the written text, images that described an event in visual form.

(iv) When scenes or themes in a book were to be given visual expression, the scribe left blank spaces on nearby pages; paintings, executed separately by artists, were inserted to accompany what was; described in words.

Question 7.
To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abu’l Fazl’s description of the taswir (Source 1)?
Solution :
Abu’l Fazl held the art of painting in high esteem. Drawing the likeness of anything was called taswir. Many paintings were masterpieces which could be compared with wonderful works of the European painters. The minuteness in detail, the general finish and the boldnesss of execution observed in pictures were incomparable. Such was the observation of Abu’l Fazl about the taswir. The visual material presented in this corresponds to the above description to a great extent in the followings ways :

1. In the picture, ‘A Mughal Kitabkhana’, every work relating to the preparation of the manuscript has been shown minutely.
2. In another painting by Abu’l Hasan, Jahangir has been shown dressed in resplendent clothes and jewels, holding up a portrait of his father Akbar. The emperors have been portrayed wearing halo.
3. In another painting by the artist Prayag, Jahangir is presenting Prince Khurram with a turban jewel. It is a scene from the Badshah Nama. The artist has also used the motif of the lion and the cow peacefully nestling next to each other to signify a realm where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony. It has been placed in a niche directly below the emperor’s throne.

The above and other paintings — Jahangir shooting the figure of poverty (Abu’l Hasan), Shah Jahan honouring Prince Aurangzeb at Agra before his wedding (Payag), Dara Shukoh’s wedding — meet the above description of Abu’l Fazl.

8. What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility? How was their relationship
with the emperor shaped?
Ans: Recruitment, rank of the n ability and relationship with the emperor:
(i) Mughal chronicles, especially the Akbar Nama, have bequeathed a vision of empire in which agency rests almost solely with the emperor, while the rest of the kingdom has been portrayed as following his orders, if we look more closely at the available information the histories provide us about the apparatus of the Mughal state, we may be able to understand the ways in which the imperial organisation was dependent on several different institutions.

(ii) The most important pillar of the Mughal state was the nobility. The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious group which ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state.

(iii) The officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor. In Akbar’s imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase of carving out a political dominion. Many had accompanied Humayun; others migrated later to the Mughal court.

(iv) The holders of government offices was given the ranks (mansabs) comprising two numerical designations: zat which was an indicator of position in the imperial hierarchy and the salary of the official (mansabdar), and sawar which indicated the number of horsemen he was required to maintain in service.

(v) Akbar, who designed the mansab system, also established spiritual relationships with a select band of his nobility by treating them as his disciples (murid).

(vi) For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way of acquiring power, wealth and the highest possible reputation. A person wishing to join the service petitioned through a noble, who presented a tajwiz to the emperor.

(vii) If the applicant was found suitable, a mansab was granted to him. The mir bakhshi (paymaster general) stood in open court on the right of the emperor and presented all candidates for appointment or promotion, while his office prepared orders bearing his seal and signature as well as those of the emperor. There were two other important ministers at the centre: the diwan-i ai (finance minister) and sadr-us sudur (minister of grants or madad-i maash, and in charge of appointing local judges or qazis)

(viii) The three ministers occasionally came together as an advisory body, but were independent of each other.

(xi) Akbar with these and other advisers shaped the administrative, fiscal and monetary institutions of the empire. Nobles stationed at the court (tainat-i rakab) were a reserve force to be deputed to a province or military campaign. Nobles were duty-bound to appear twice a day to express submission their to the emperor.
(x) They also had to share the responsibility for guarding the emperor and his household round the clock.

9. Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of kingship.
Ans: (i) According to Akbars court poet, Abu’l Fazl Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-i- izadi). According to this idea, there was a Hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king (Mughal Emperor) who then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.

(ii) Mughal chronicles present the empire as comprising many different ethnic and religious communities – Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims. As the source of all peace and stability, the emperor stood above all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace prevailed.

(iii) Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kui (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule. In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight among themselves The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies – the nobility under the Mughals was a composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Qeccanis – all of whom were given positions and awards purely on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king.

(iv) Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination. Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the concept of sulh-i kul.

(v) All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the buildings and maintenance of places of worship. However, it was during the reign of Auranzeb, the jizya was re¬imposed on non-Muslim subjects.

(vi) Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. According to him the emperor protects the four essences of subjects, namely, life (jan), property (mal), honour (narnus) and faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources from the people. Only sovereigns were thought to be able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Why was jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of rural Bengal ?
Ans: Jotedars were rich peasants in Bengal. They owned big plots of land sometimes running into thousand of acres of land. They controlled local trade and commerce including the money lending business. They had great influence on the local village population. They were regarded more powerful than the Zamindars even. Following are the main reasons for the high status of Jotedars.

1.  The Jotedars controlled trade and commerce including money lending business at the local level.
2. In order to weaken the Zamindars, Jotedars would mobilise ryots not to pay or delay payment towards land revenue.
3. The Jotedars opposed the moves of Zamindars to increase the Jama of a village.
4. The Jotedars lived in villages only. Hence they were in a better position to interact with and influence the peasants.
5. Jotedars were rich and owned big areas of land under cultivation. Many a time they would buy estates of Zamindar. That would be auctioned due to failure to pay up land revenue.

2. How did zamindars manage to retain control over their zamindaris?
Ans: The zamindars manage to retain control over their zamindaris in the following manners :

1. Fictitious sale : It involved series of manoeuvres. For example, Raja of Burdwan, first transferred some of his zamindari to his mother because the company had decreed that property of women would not be taken over by the company. Secondly, his agents manipulated the auctions by buying the property, outbidding other purchasers. Subsequently, they refused to pay up the purchase money. As a result of it, the Estate was again resold at auction. But as the zamindar’s agents used to purchase it again and again, and did not pay the purchase amount, the auctions were repeated endlessly. Ultimately, the estate was sold at a lower price back to the zamindars, who never paid the full revenue demand. Such transactions took place on a large scale in Bengal including Burdwan.

2. Attack on outsiders : Whenever outsiders purchased an estate at an auction, they could not always take possession because their agents would be attacked by lathyals of the former zamindar.

3. Sometimes even the ryots resisted the outsiders due to their close relations with the zamindar. The ryots considered themselves to be the proja (subjects) of the zamindar.

Thus, the zamindars could not be displaced. Thereafter the rules of revenue payment were made flexible. As a result of that, the zamindar’s power over the villages were strengthened. It was only during the Great Depression of 1930s that their power collapsed and the jotedars consolidated their power in the countryside.

3. How did the Paharias respond to the coming of outsiders? 
Ans: Paharias live in the hills of Rajmahal. The British people began to interact with them and later Santhals began to settle down there. The response of the Paharias was as follows:

1. Paharias resisted the settlement of Santhals initially but had to accommodate them in course of time.
2. The Paharias shifted to deeper areas into the hills.
3. They were confined to more barren and rocky areas of the hills in course of time.
4. The paharias did shifting cultivation. Now shifting cultivation was becoming more and more difficult as proper and stable settlements.
5. As forest began to be cleared, the paharis could not depend on it for livelihood. Thus, the lifestyle and living of Paharias underwent change due to coming of outsiders.

4. Why did the Santhals rebel against British rule?
Ans: By 1832 the Santhals had settled in Damin-i-Koh area. Their settlement expanded rapidly. Forests were cleared to accommodate them. The Company also benefitted as it got more and more land revenue. However, the Santhals too got dissatisfied. They rebelled against the British rule. Following are the main causes for their rebellion.
1. Santhals were not happy with the tax regime of the company. They thought that the land revenue rates were high and exploitative .
2. The Zamindars began to exercise greater control on the areas brought under cultivation by Santhals, apparently it was a part of the British Policy. But Santhals resented that.
3. Moneylenders in the rural areas were seen as villain and agent of Company rule by the Santhals. Moneylenders could auction the land of Santhals in case of defaulter. All this was not liked by the Santhals.
The British took steps to placate the Santhals later on. A separate district of Santhal Pargana was carved out and law was enacted to protect the santhals.

5. What explains the anger of the Deccan ryots against the moneylenders?
Ans: During the civil war in USA, Indian merchants hoped to capture the world market in raw cotton, but that did not happen. On the other hand, the following events took place after the civil war:

• Cotton production in America revived and the Indian cotton exports to British steadily declined.
• Export merchants and sahukars in Maharashtra refused to give long-term credit. They restricted the advances to peasants and demanded repayment of outstanding debts.
• At the same time as the term of first revenue settlement was over, the demand for revenue was increased from 50 to 100 per cent.

As a result of above, the ryots were not in position to pay the inflated demand because the prices were also falling. Thus, they had no option except to take a further loan from the moneylender who also refused to loans. This enraged the ryots. The moneylenders became insensitive to their plight. They were violating the customary norms of the countryside. For example, general norm was that the interest charged could not be more than the principal. They were not charging fair interest. In one of the cases, investigated by the Deccan Riots Commission, the moneylender charged over ? 2000 as interest on a loan of ? 100. There were complaints of injustice of such extractions and the violation of custom. A new law – Limitation Law – was passed in 1859 where validity of loan bonds was fixed for three years but the

moneylenders manipulated new systems to exploit the ryots. Under these circumstances, the ryots’ anger against the moneylenders increased.

6. Why were so many Zamindaris auctioned after the Permanent settlement?
Ans: Many Zamindaris were auctioned as the Zamindars failed to pay up the agreed land revenue on time. The reason for the same:
1. Many believed that the land revenue settlemnt was on the higher side. Moreover soon after the permanent settlement the foodgrain prices declined. The ryots could not pay up the land revenue and hence Zamindars also defaulted.
2. The revenue was to be deposited on time irrespective of harvesting cycle. This was another reason for default by the Zamindars.
3. The power of Zamindars was curbed by the Company. They were no longer law and order enforcing agency at local level. Their musclemen were also weakened. As a result of this Zamindars could not effectively collect taxes at times.
4. Many a time Jotedars and peasants deliberately delayed the land revenue payment. This resulted in default by Zamindars and the auction thereafter.

7. In what way was the livelihood of Paharias different from that of Santhals?
Ans: Paharias were living in the foothills of Rajmahal. They lived a life that was different from Santhals. Most of the information on their lives is based on the report of Buchanan, the physician of the East India Company who wandered into the terrain of Rajmahal Hills.

1. The paharias were nomads. They lived a wandering life. They, however, sometimes did shifting cultivation.
2. Their another important source of livelihood of forest resources and animals.
3. They extracted mahua and used it. Colonialism and the countryside: Exploring official archives
4. Paharias used to look at outsiders with suspicion and even were hostile with them.
5. The Santhals were different from them on many counts.
6. The Santhals took to agriculture fast and soon got into settled life.
7. They had better relation with the outsiders including the East India Company.

8. How did the American Civil War affect the lives of ryots in India?
Ans: The American Civil War affected the lives of ryots in India in the following ways :

1. In the beginning, as a result of civil war, the imports of cotton from America fell from over 2,000,000 bales in 1861 to 55,000 bales in 1862. The Britain looked towards to fill the gap. Thus, export merchants in Bombay were keen to avail this opportunity to earn maximum. The advances to urban sahukars, moneylenders and ultimately to the ryots were provided. This led to increase in cotton production. The ryots were given ? 100 as advance for every acre they planted with cotton. The cotton export to Britain increased but this did not bring prosperity for all. Some rich peasants gained but for the majority of cotton producers including the ryots, cotton expansion led to heavier debt.
2. The end of war again affected the ryots badly because with the revival of cotton production in America, the Indian exports declined. The sahukars were no longer interested in extending long-term loans. The demand for cotton had reduced, cotton prices slided downwards. It hit the ryots badly.
3. At the same time, under the new settlement for revenue, the demand was increased from 50 to 100 per cent. Under the conditions of falling prices and reduction in the growth of cotton in the absences of loans, it was not possible for the ryots to make payment of the inflated demand. Once again they had no option except to take loan from the moneylender but they refused to extend loans. This made the condition of ryots miserable and ultimately led to riots.

9. What are the problems of using the official sources in writing about the history of peasants.
Ans: Official sources of the Company Raj are not regarded as reliable source of history when it came to the lot of Ryots.
Following are the main problems associated with official source of history.
1. The official records reflect only the Company raj perspective. They did not look at events from different angles. For example when the Deccan Riot Commission was instituted, it was required to find out if the land revenue was just or not. Other issues of Ryots were not taken into account.
2. The British people looked down upon the local people, their culture and tradition as lowly. They ended up giving a lowly picture of peasants even if without intention of the same.
3. The record of the Company Raj was created by the officials in such a manner that it suits their masters. Thus, evidences were tempered with. For example the Deccan Ryot Commission concluded that Ryots were angered not by the high land revenue but by moneylenders.
4. Thus, official sources are to be read alongwith other sources and need to be weighed before we take them to our stride.

10. On an outline map of the subcontinent, mark out the areas described in this chapter. Find out whether there were other areas where the Permanent Settlement and the ryotwari system were prevalent and plot these on the map as well.
Ans: In the chapter the following areas have been mentioned of the subcontinent.
(a) Bengal. (Bangladesh along with certain area of Bihar, Orissa and hilly areas of Assam).
(b) Bombay Presidency and
(c) Madras Presidency,
(d) The Britishers introduced Mahalwari system of land revenue in eastern part of Punjab
(e) Surat
(f) Rajmahal hills (occupied by Paharias and Santhals).

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NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 11 Rebels and the Raj The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Why did the mutinous sepoys in many places turn to erstwhile rulers to provide leadership to the revolt?
Ans: Following are the major reasons to explain why the rebellious soldiers turned to native rulers for leadership:
1. East India company defeated native rulers to grab power in India. Many believed that the native Indian rulers had the legal and legitimate authority to regain power in the respective kingdoms. Therefore, it was natural that they became the leaders of the rebels and regain the lost status of rulers.

2. The erstwhile rulers had substantial resources at their command. They had wealth and private armies too. The rebels waited to get the support of resources from them, and by declaring them the leaders it was natural outcome.

3. Most of the erstwhile Indian rulers were popular at the local level. Their subjects often sympathised with them as they believed that the latter were unlawfully thrown out of power and even suffered humiliation. Choosing these native rulers was echoing the sentiments of the people and winning more support for the cause.

2. Discuss the evidence that indicates planning and coordination on the part of the rebels.
Ans: The evidence that indicates planning and coordination on the part of the rebels is as given below :

1. Lines of communication :
   • There was communication between the sepoy lines of various cantonments. For example, after the 7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry had refused to use new cartridges, they wrote to the 48th Native Infantry that “they had acted for the faith and awaited the 48th’s orders.”
   • Sepoys or their emissaries moved from one station to another.
2. Mutinies were organised is evident from the incident relating to protection given to captain Hearsey by his Indian subordinates during the mutiny. In this case, it was decided that the matter would be decided by a panchayat composed of native officers drawn from each regiment. It proves that the mutinies were well organised. Charles Ball has also noted that panchayats were a nightly occurrence in the Kanpur sepoy lines.

3. Discuss the extent to which religious beliefs shaped the events of 1857.
Ans: People during the company rule felt that their religious sentiments are systemically hurt by the government. For them it was an attack on their religious freedom, and an insult. The religious causes for the Revolt are as follows:

1. Immediate cause: The soldiers were given cartridge greased with cow and pig fat. This angered Moslems and Hindus alike.
2. Reforms by Company: The Company introduced many religious and social reformers. Many Indians began to believe that it was an attempt on the part the government to deviate them from their own religion. Important of such reforms were prevention of sati system, widow remarriage, etc.
3. Activities of Christian Missionaries: During company rule involved in spread of education. But local people looked upon them with suspicion. Thus, the people plunged in rebellion against the foreign rule.

4. What were the measures taken to ensure unity among the rebels?
Ans: The following measures were taken to ensure unity among the rebels :

1. The rebel proclamations in 1857 repeatedly appealed to all sections of the population, irrespective of their caste and creed. For example, the Azamgarh Proclamation of 25 August 1857 appealed to all “Hindoos and Mohammedans” to stake their lives and property for the well being of the public and take their share in the holy war against the British.
2. Proclamations made by the Muslim princes or in their names took care to address the sentiments of Hindus.
3. The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.
4. The ishtahars harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under the Mughal Empire.
5. The proclamation that was issued under the name of Bahadur Shah appealed to the people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.
6. British made attempts to create divisions between Hindus and Muslims. For example, in Bareily in western Uttar Pradesh, in December 1857, the British spent? 50,000 to incite Hindu population against the Muslims but they failed.

5. What steps did the British take to quell the uprising ?
Ans: In 1857 a sepoy mutiny broke out in East India that became a mass uprising in many parts of the country. The Company had faced rebellions in the past too, but not of this magnitude and extent. The British rulers realised that unless the rebellions is suppressed, their empire was destined to fizzle out.
They took swift measures to put down the flame of the rebellion, some were of military nature while others were of political nature.
The important measures taken by the British to suppress the rebellion are as follows:
1. Imposition of Marshal Law and large scale of execution: In north India where rebels were holding ground, Marshal Law was imposed. Apart from enforcing law, military officers also had the power to dispense justice and pronounce conviction and punishment. Thus, for all practical purposes, rebels and their sympathizers could be declared guilty without fair trial. The punishment was not just swift, cruel and partisan but in most cases execution. The execution was carried out in a manner that fear grips the masses. The people were blown up by canons, still others were hanged by trees. The objective was to terrorize the people and make them subservient to the might of the British empire.

2. Diplomacy: The British masters used diplomacy as tool to weaken and destroy the rebellions. They tried to win the support of native kingdoms who were not on the side of rebels, by promising them rewards and securing their kingdoms. The communities who were not involved in the mutiny, viz. Sikhs were recruited and sent to fight the rebels.

3. Use of technology: The British used technology to get an upper hand in the battle fields. Apart from having superior weapons, it was the superior communication system that routed the rebels. The company used telegram to instantly communicate with others, the rebels were totally clueless about such things.
To conclude the British strategy and technique to defeat the rebels was multi¬pronged and superior to those employed by the rebels. It was natural that the rebels crumbled in course of time.

6. Why was the revolt particularly widespread in Awadh? What prompted the! peasants, taluqdaars and zamindars to join the revolt?
Ans: (a) The revolt was widespread in Awadh due to the following reasons :

1. Awadh was annexed by the British on the plea that the region was being misgoverned. The British thought that the Nawab was not popular but on the contrary he was very popular. People considered it as “the life has gone out of the body”. The removal led to an emotional upheaval among the people of Awadh.
2. The annexation of Awadh led to unemployment among the musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, cooks, retainers, administrative officials and soon those who were attached with the Nawab and his household.
3. It also led to loss of court culture.

(b) The peasants, talnqdars and zamindars joined the revolt due to the following grievances :

1. Before the annexation, the taluqdars were very powerful but immediately after the annexation, they were disarmed and their forts destroyed. Not only under the first British revenue settlement, known as the Summary Settlement of 1856, it was assumed that they had no permanent stakes in land. Wherever possible they were removed. This led to discontentment among the taluqdars.
2. The British had hoped that by removing the taluqdars, the condition of the peasants would improve but this did not happen. Revenue flows for the state increased but the burden of demand on the peasants did not decline. So, the peasants were too not happy with the new situation.

7. What did the rebels want? To what extent did the vision of different social group differ?
Ans: The rebels wanted to uproot the British rule. It was to be replaced by the rule of Indian, but what would be the nature of that governance is something the rebels were not sure of. They were definitely not fighting to establish a democratic government. The salient points of the vision of the rebels were as follows:
1. Hindu-Muslim Unity: The rebels were not clear about the idea of Hindu-Muslim Unity. But they were definitely cherished the ideals of Hindu-Muslim unity. The religious sentiments of both the parties were respected so much so whenever a new territory fell to rebels, cow slanghter was banned.

2. Preserving Indian Culture: Many believed that the company was pushing European culture and Christianity on the Indians. The rebels wanted to reverse this process. Some of the measures by the company to reform our society were also seen with the same vein.

The vision of the different social groups:
Zamindars: Many of them did not like the provision of auction of their estate by the company to recover losses. They considered themselves as rulers who could not be dispossessed of their estate. Hence, many of them wanted to give governance that suited their interest.
Merchants: They were a mixed lot. They liked the rule of company as it maintained peace and law across vast areas of India. However, they also looked upon the company rule as partisan that promoted British trade interest at the cost of that of Indian’s, for the end of Company rule could translate into a favourable environment.
Artisans: Most artisans were struggling to survive as they suffered due to policies of Company that pumped manufactured goods of England.

8. What do visual representations tell us about the revolt of 1857? How do historians analyse these representations?
Ans: (i) Pictorial images were produced by both British and Indians paintings, pencil drawings, posters, etc. They form an important record of the mutiny. British pictures in particular presented a variety of images that have provoked a range of different kinds of emotions and reactions.

(ii) Some of the British pictorial images commemorate the British heroes who served the English. They repressed the rebels hence represented as heroes for example, ‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker, depicts the efforts of James Outrom, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British garrison in Lucknow. This image was sketched in 1859.

(iii) Newspapers reported incidents of violence against women and children such kinds of news when broke out, they led to demands for revenge and retribution. The British government were asked to protect the women and children. Artists have tried to express these feelings through their visual representations of trauma and suffering.

(iv) Memories “In memoriam” painted by Joseph Noel Paton portrays helpless English women and children huddled in circle awaiting their fate at the hands of the rebels. Through it he ties to represent the rebels as violent.

(v) Portrait of heroes of rebellion the dead and injured potrait in the picture indicate the sufferings which occurred during the siege. While the triumphant figures of heroes in the middle ground emphasised the fact that British rule had been reestablished. The rebellion has been surprised.

(vi) Invincibility of British threatened by the rebellion, the British felt the need to demonstrate their invincibility. They frid to represent it through pictorial images for example, in one such image a female figure of justice with a sword in one hand a shield in the other is shown. Her posture is aggressive, her facial expression express her anger and a desire for revenge she is presented in a heroic image.

(vii) In certain sketches and paintings women are depicted as heroic. They are represented as defending themselves against the rebels. Women’s struggle to save her honour and life is shown to have a deeper religious connotation. It is a battle to save the honour of Christianity and a book lying on the floor is said to symbolize the Bible.

(viii) Source of deals with the report of a British officer from Oudh. The reports of the uprising of the people.

9. Examine any two sources presented in the chapter, choosing one visual and one text,
and discuss how these represent the point of view of the victor and vanquished.
Ans: Ordinary people join the mutiny of 1857. Lucknow was one of the main centres. The sepoys of Awadh were joined by peasants, zamindars, traders and talukdars.

Source  Sisten and the tahsildar: In the context of the communication of the message of revolt and mutiny, the experience of Francois Sisten, a native Christian police inspector in Sitapur, is telling.
He had gone to Saharanpur to pay his respects to the magistrate. Sisten was dressed in Indian clothes and sitting cross-legged. A Muslim tahsildar from Bijnor entered the room; upon learning that Sisten was from Awadh, he enquired, “What news from Awadh? How does the work progress, brother?” Playing safe, Sisten replied, “If we have work in Awadh, your highness will know it.” The tahsildar said, “Depend upon it, we will succeed this time. The direction of the business is in able hands.” The tahsildar was later identified as the principal rebel leader of Bijnor. This source indicate that the effect of the rebellions had spread even among those officers who had earlier supported the British. The English men worried about their lives, property, owner of women and children. The geographical extent of the revolt was much greater. The magistrate used to get news and daily development day to day through their governmental representatives but they were suspicious as later on magistrate of Sitapur came to know that the Sisten who came to him was a great sympathiser of the rebellions.

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The post NCERT Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 11 Rebels and the Raj The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations appeared first on Learn CBSE.

CGPA Calculator: Most of the students are not aware of how to calculate CGPA though it is mentioned in their report cards. CBSE Board gives its score in terms of CGPA. If you are feeling difficulty while understanding the concept of CGPA then this is the right place for you. Here we have explained the manual procedure on how to find the Cumulative Grade Points Average(CGPA). Have an insight into details like the definition of CGPA, Solved Examples. Get to know how to find the CGPA and Percentage from the CGPA Grades.

What is CGPA?

CGPA stands for Cumulative Grade Points Average. CGPA is nothing but the average of grade points obtained by students in all the subjects excluding the 6th subject. If you want to know how much percentage you have secured in your board exams you need to convert from CGPA to Percentage.

• Percentage to CGPA Calculator
• Percentage to CGPA Calculation Examples
• CGPA to Percentage Calculator
• CGPA to Percentage Calculation Examples
• Percentage and CGPA Accordig to Marks of Subject
• Percentage and CGPA Accordig to Grades of Subject
• 96 Percentage to CGPA
• 95 Percentage to CGPA
• 94 Percentage to CGPA
• 93 Percentage to CGPA
• 9.8 CGPA to Percentage
• 9.7 CGPA to Percentage
• 9.6 CGPA to Percentage
• 9.5 CGPA to Percentage

How to Calculate CGPA?

Follow the simple and easy guidelines on how to calculate the CGPA manually and find the Cumulative Grade Points Average instantly. They are along the lines

• Add the Grade Points of the 5 main subjects given.
• Divide the resultant sum obtained with 5
• The resultant is the Cumulative Grade Points Average.

Example

Calculate the Cumulative Grade Points Average is the CGPA Grades of Subjects are given as 9, 8, 7, 8, 8?

Solution:

Given Subject Grades are 9, 8, 7, 8, 8

To find CGPA add the grades = 9+8+7+8+8

Sum = 40

Divide the sum with 5 to get the CGPA

CGPA = 40/5

CGPA = 8

Therefore, the Cumulative Grade Points Average of subjects 9, 8, 7, 8, 8 is 8

CGPA to Percentage

It is important to know the CGPA in Percentages to know how much you have secured. Know how to convert CGPA to Percentage by referring below.

To change CGPA to Percentage all you need to do is simply multiply the CGPS Score obtained with 9.5

FAQs on CGPA(Cumulative Grade Points Average)

1. What is meant by CGPA?

CGPA stands for Cumulative Grade Points Average and is the average of grade points obtained by students excluding additional subjects.

2. What is the Full Form of CGPA?

CGPA Stands for Cumulative Grade Points Average.

3. How to Calculate CGPA?

You can calculate CGPA by adding the grade points of main subjects and excluding additional subjects. Divide the sum obtained with 5 and then you get the CGPA.

4. How to find Percentage using CGPA?

You just need to multiply the CGPA Score obtained with 9.5 to get the Percentage.

Conclusion

We hope the knowledge shared on our page regarding the CGPA Calculator has shed some light on you. If you have any queries and feel any information is missing feel free to ask us and we will get back to you. Stay tuned to our site for the latest updates on CGPA Calculator in no time.

The post CGPA Calculator | Percentage to CGPA and CGPA to Percentage Calculation appeared first on Learn CBSE.

History is an essential subject and is all about studying past events. The subject includes various dates to memorize and needs proper study material. While preparing for the history exam it is necessary to prepare from Proper Textbooks. We have listed the Class 11 History NCERT Solutions to ace up your preparation. Make the most out of them and enhance your subject knowledge and clear all your queries. Download the 11th Class History NCERT Solutions PDF through the quick links available.

NCERT Solutions of Class 11th History PDF Free Download

The Solutions provided for Class 11 History are prepared by subject experts who have deep knowledge of the subject. To help students we have provided the NCERT Solutions of Class 11 History in PDF Format. Access the Chapterwise NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History through quick links available. Have a strong conceptual knowledge by taking the help of the Detailed Solutions.

Class 11 History NCERT Solutions Themes in World History

• Chapter 1 From the Beginning of Time
• Chapter 2 Writing and City Life
• Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents
• Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands
• Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires
• Chapter 6 The Three Orders
• Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions
• Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures
• Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution
• Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples
• Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization

Why you should study 11th Std History NCERT Solutions?

Here is a list of reasons why you should refer to the Class 11 History NCERT Solutions. They are as below

• Grasp the concepts covered in NCERT Textbooks by referring to the NCERT Solutions PDF.
• You can access the NCERT Solutions provided free of cost.
• Enhance your subject knowledge and identify your strengths and weaknesses.
• 11th Grade NCERT Solutions for History are given in a clear and lucid manner making it easy for you to learn the concepts.
• You can rely on the Step by Step Solutions provided as all of them are given by experts after ample research.

FAQs on History Class 11 NCERT Solutions PDF

1. Where do I get detailed NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History?

You can get detailed NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History on our page.

2. How to score max. marks in Class 11 History Board Exams?

Practice using the NCERT Solutions of Class 11 History on a regular basis and get a good grip on the concepts. Thus, you can attempt the exam with confidence and score well in the exam.

3. How to download 11th Grade History NCERT Solutions PDF?

All you need to do is simply tap on the quick links available for Class 11 History NCERT Solutions. You will be directed to a new page having the download option on which you can click on and save it for future reference.

4. Where do I find Chapterwise Class 11th NCERT Solutions of History?

You can find Chapterwise Class 11 History NCERT Solutions on our portal LearnCBSE.in a trusted portal for all NCERT Solutions.

Conclusion

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Don’t you have a hardcopy of the Sanskrit Textbook and worried about how to learn it. Don’t worry as we have curated the NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit in a simple and easy to understand language. You can rely on the Class 12 NCERT Solutions for Sanskrit provided here as they are given to you after ample research. Make the most out of the NCERT Solutions prevailing as per the latest CBSE Guidelines and score high in your board exams. Download the Sanskrit 12th Class NCERT Solutions PDF free of cost through the quick links available.

Chapterwise NCERT Solutions for Class 12th Sanskrit

Take the help of the Chapterwise NCERT Solutions of Class 12 Sanskrit and ace up your preparation. Enhance Subject Knowledge on Sanskrit through the detailed solutions provided. All the Solutions are provided in a clear manner so that students can understand them quickly and clarify their doubts. Simply click on the quick links available below and prepare the concepts underlying accordingly.

खण्डः क

• अपठितांशावबोधनम्

खण्डः ख – संस्कृतेन रचनात्मकं लिखितकार्यम्

• पत्र-लेखनम् (अनौपचारिकं पत्रम्/प्रार्थनापत्रम्)
• लघुकथा-लेखनम् (शब्दसूचीसाहाय्येन, रिक्तस्थानपूर्ति-माध्यमेन)
• सङ्केताधारितम् अनुच्छेदलेखनम्

खण्डः ग
अनुप्रयुक्तव्याकरणम्

• सन्धि-प्रकरण
• समास-प्रकरण
• प्रकृति-प्रत्यय-विभाग
• अन्विति-प्रकरण
• उपपदविभक्ति प्रयोग

खण्डः घ
भाग I – पठितांश-अवबोधनम्

• Chapter 1 उत्तिष्ठत जाग्रत (उठो, जागो)
• Chapter 2 सूर्यः एव प्रकृतेः आधारः (सूर्य ही पृथ्वी का आधार है)
• Chapter 3 राष्ट्रचिन्ता गरीयसी (राष्ट्र की चिन्ता अधिक महत्त्वपूर्ण है)
• Chapter 4 दूरदृष्टिः फलप्रदा (दूरदृष्टि अच्छे परिणाम देती है)
• Chapter 5 अहो! राजते कीदृशीयं हिमानी (अहा! कैसी सुशोभित है यह हिम-घाटी)
• Chapter 6 सुधामुचः वाचः (अमृत बरसाने वाले वचन)
• Chapter 7 दारिद्र्ये दुर्लभं सत्त्वम् (दरिद्रता में मनोबल का होना दुर्लभ है)
• Chapter 8 आश्चर्यमयं विज्ञानजगत् (आश्चर्यों से भरा है विज्ञान का यह संसार)

भाग II – सामान्यः संस्कृतसाहित्यपरिचयः

• पाठ्यपुस्तके संकलितपाठ्यांशानाम् कवीनां कृतीनां संस्कृतेन परिचयः
  • लेखकानां देश-काल-ग्रन्थाणाम्
  • कवि/लेखक परिचयः
• संस्कृते गद्य-पद्य-नाटकादिविधानां मुख्यविशेषतानां परिचयः

CBSE Class 12 Sanskrit Syllabus

संस्कृतम् कक्षा – 12
पूर्णाङ्काः 100
एकम् प्रश्नपत्रम्

अस्मिन् प्रश्नपत्रे चत्वारःः खण्डाः भविष्यन्ति
खण्डः “क” अपठितांश-अवबोधनम् (10)
खण्डः “ख” रचनात्मककार्यम् (15)
खण्डः “ग” अनुप्रयुक्तव्याकरणम् (30)
खण्डः “घ” (45)
(अ) पठित-अवबोधनम् (35)
(ब) संस्कृतसाहित्येतिहास्य परिचयः (10)

प्रतिखण्डं विस्तृतविवरणम्
खण्डः ‘क’ – (अपठितांशअवबोधनम्)

80-100 शब्दपरिमितः एक सरलः अपठितः गद्यांशः। प्रश्नवैविध्यम् (अङ्काः – 10, कालांशः – 21)
(i) एकपदेन उत्तरम्
(ii) पूर्णवाक्येन उत्तरम्
(iii) सर्वनामस्थाने संज्ञाप्रयोगः
(iv) कर्तृक्रिया-पदचयनम्
(v) विशेषण-विशेष्य/पर्याय/विलोमादिचयनम्
(vi) समुचितशीर्षकप्रदानम्

खण्डः ‘ख’
(संस्कृतेन रचनात्मकं लिखितकार्यम्) (अङ्काः – 15, कालांशः – 32)

1. अनौपचारिकं पत्रम्/प्रार्थनापत्रम्
2. लघुकथा (शब्दसूचीसाहाय्येन, रिक्तस्थानपूर्ति-माध्यमेन)
3. संकेताधारितम् अनुच्छेदलेखनम् (चित्रमधिकृत्य, निर्दिष्टशब्दसूची-साहाय्येन)

खण्डः ‘ग’
(अनुप्रयुक्तव्याकरणम्) (अङ्काः – 30, कालांशः – 63)

(i) पाठाधारिताः सन्धिच्छेदाः (2 + 2 + 2 = 6)
स्वरसन्धिः, व्यंजनसन्धिः, विसर्गसन्धिः
(ii) पाठाधारितसमस्तपदानां विग्रहा: (6)
अव्ययीभावः, द्विगुः, द्वन्द्वः, तत्पुरुषः, कर्मधारयः, बहुव्रीहिः
(iii) प्रत्ययाः
अधोलिखितप्रत्यययोगेन वाक्यसंयोजनम्/सङ्केताधारितरिक्तस्थानपूर्तिः
(अ) कृत् – क्त, क्तवतु, क्त्वा, तुमुन्, ल्यप्, तव्यत्, अनीयर्, क्तिन्, शतृ, शान। (5)
(आ) तद्धित — मतुप्, इन्, ठक्, ठञ्, त्व, तल्। (3)
(iv) अन्वितिः (5)
कर्तृ-क्रिया-अन्वितिः/विशेषण-विशेष्य-अन्वितिः
(v) उपपदविभक्तिप्रयोगः (पाठ्यपुस्तकम् आधृत्य) (5)

खण्डः ‘घ’
भागः I – (पठितांश-अवबोधनम् ) (अङ्काः – 45, कालांशः – 94)

(अ) अंशत्रयम् (15)
(i) एकः गद्यांशः (5)
(ii) एकः नाट्यांशः (5)
(iii) एकः पद्यांश: (5)
प्रश्नवैविध्यम्
(i) एकपदेन उत्तरम् (1)
(ii) पूर्णवाक्येन उत्तरम् (1)
(iii) विशेषण-विशेष्य-अन्विति:/पर्याय/विलोमचयनम् (1)
(iv) सर्वनामस्थाने संज्ञाप्रयोगः (1)
(v) कर्तृ-क्रिया-पदचयनम् (1)
(आ) (i) उद्धृतांशानम् प्रसङ्गसन्दर्भलेखनम् कः कम् कथयति/सन्दर्भग्रन्थस्य लेखकस्य च नामोल्लेखनम् (4)
(ii) प्रदत्ते भावार्थेत्रये शुद्धभावार्थचयनम्/ प्रदत्ते भावार्थे रिक्तस्थानपूर्तिः (4)
(iii) उद्धृतश्लोकानाम् अन्वयेषु रिक्तस्थानपूर्तिः (4)
(iv) प्रदत्तवाक्यानां क्रमयोजनम् (4)
(v) प्रदत्तपंक्तिषु प्रसङ्गानुसारं श्लिष्टपदानाम्/पदानाम् अर्थलेखनम् (4)

भागः II – (सामान्यः संस्कृतसाहित्यपरिचयः) (10)
1. (अ) पाठ्यपुस्तके संकलितपाठ्यांशानां कवीनां कृतीनां संस्कृतेन परिचयः (1 × 5 = 5)
(आ) संस्कृते गद्य-पद्य-नाटकादिविधानां मुख्यविशेषतानां परिचयः (5)

Benefits of 12th Class NCERT Solutions on Sanskrit

Go through the advantages of referring to Class 12th NCERT Solutions on Sanskrit from the below sections. They are along the lines

• Students can learn all the concepts in a simple and easy to understand language.
• All the Solutions provided are available for download and you can access them free of cost.
• Lay a stronger foundation of basics by solving the NCERT Solutions provided.
• Detailed Solutions provided are given by subject experts and as per the latest syllabus guidelines.

FAQs on Class 12 Sanskrit NCERT Solutions

1. How to download NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit?

You can download NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit by simply tapping on the quick links available. Once you click on them you will be directed to a new page having the download option. Tap on that and save it for future reference.

2. From where students can get detailed NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit?

Students can get detailed NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit on our page.

3. How to study 12th Grade Sanskrit Concepts easily?

Take the help of NCERT Solutions for 12th Grade Sanskrit to prepare the concepts of Sanskrit easily.

Final words

We wish the data shed above regarding NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit has been beneficial to an extent. If you have any other queries feel free to reach us and we will get back to you at the earliest possibility. Bookmark our site for the latest updates on NCERT Solutions of various classes at your fingertips.

The post NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sanskrit | Download 12th Class Sanskrit NCERT Solutions PDF appeared first on Learn CBSE.

NCERT Solutions of Class 12 Geography are provided to help students find the answers to questions they feel difficult. We have listed the 12th Std Geography NCERT Solutions PDF in simple and easy to understand language. Refer to these Solutions while preparing for the board exams and clear the exams with flying colors. Download the Class 12th Geography NCERT Solutions PDF through the direct links available and prepare from anywhere and anytime.

12th Class Geography NCERT Solutions PDF Free Download

Students can have strong fundamentals of Geography by availing the quick links prevailing. Simply click on the chapter you want to prepare and get the related concepts easily. Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions provided gives solved answers to all the questions in the Textbooks. If you are facing difficulty at any point you can make use of the NCERT Solutions over here to clear your doubts.

Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions: Fundamentals of Human Geography

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography: Fundamentals of Human Geography

• Chapter 1 Human Geography (Nature and Scope)
• Chapter 2 The World Population (Distribution, Density and Growth)
• Chapter 3 Population Composition
• Chapter 4 Human Development
• Chapter 5 Primary Activities
• Chapter 6 Secondary Activities
• Chapter 7 Tertiary and Quaternary Activities
• Chapter 8 Transport and Communication
• Chapter 9 International Trade
• Chapter 10 Human Settlements

Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions: India People and Economy

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography: India People and Economy

• Chapter 1 Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition
• Chapter 2 Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences
• Chapter 3 Human Development
• Chapter 4 Human Settlements
• Chapter 5 Land Resources and Agriculture
• Chapter 6 Water Resources
• Chapter 7 Mineral and Energy Resources
• Chapter 8 Manufacturing Industries
• Chapter 9 Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context
• Chapter 10 Transport And Communication
• Chapter 11 International Trade
• Chapter 12 Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems

Practical Work in Geography Class 12 Solutions

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography: Practical Work in Geography

• Chapter 1 Data – Its Source and Compilation
• Chapter 2 Data Processing
• Chapter 3 Graphical Representation of Data
• Chapter 4 Use of Computer in Data Processing and Mapping
• Chapter 5 Field Surveys
• Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology

Advantages of 12th Std Geography NCERT Solutions

Go through the benefits of referring to the NCERT Solutions of Class 12 Geography. They are as under

• Grasping the concepts of Geography becomes quite easy with the NCERT Textbook Solutions.
• You can download the NCERT Solutions PDF free of cost through the quick links.
• Detailed solutions given helps you learn the concepts effectively.
• Make use of well-structured solutions to enhance your subject knowledge.

FAQs on Geography Class 12 NCERT Solutions

1. Where can I find the Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions PDF?

You can find the Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions PDF through the quick links available on our page.

2. How to download 12th Grade Geography NCERT Solutions?

Just click on the quick links available for 12th Class NCERT Solutions of Geography and you will be directed to a new page having the download option. Tap on that and save for future usage.

3. Which website offers the best NCERT Solutions for 12th Class Geography?

LearnCBSE.in offers the best NCERT Solutions for 12th Class Geography and you can use them as a reference as all of them are given after extensive research by experts.

4. Where do I get Chapterwise NCERT Solutions for 12th Class Geography?

You can get Chapterwise NCERT Solutions for 12th Class Geography on our page.

Final Words

Hope the information shared on our page regarding the Class 12 Geography NCERT Solutions has shed some light on you. If you have any other queries don’t hesitate and leave us a comment so that we will get back to you with a possible solution. Stay in touch with our site to avail the latest updates on NCERT Solutions of different classes in no time.

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