New Empires and Kingdoms – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter :

• A Prashasti is a Sanskrit word which means ‘in praise of. Although composition of prashastis was not a new thing, it became popular only from the time of the Guptas.
• In Samudragupta’s prashasti the poet described the king as equal to the gods.
• Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of the ruler. For example, there is one prashasti that mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother.
• Chandragupta, Samudragupta’s father, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty who adopted the grand title of maharaj-adhiraj. This title was also used by Samudragupta.
• Harshavardhana ruled Thanesar about 1400 years ago. He also began to rule over Kanauj after this brother-in-law was killed.
• In the beginning of his rule he remained successful but finally his success did not last long.
• The’Pallavas and Chalukyas were important ruling dynasties in South India.
• Pulakeshin II was the famous Chalukya ruler. His court poet Ravikirti composed poems in his praise. It was Pulakeshin II who checked the advance of Harsha.
• Land revenue remained important for the rulers.
• A new kind of army developed. Kings maintained a well-organised army with elephants, chariots, cavalry and foot-soldiers along with military leaders.
• Local assemblies which included the Sabha (an assembly of brahmin land owners) were there. Ur was a village assembly that existed in areas where the land owners were not brahmins Nagaram was an organisation of merchants.
• The condition of ordinary people was not good.
• Untouchables were not treated well.

Words that Matter:

• Dakshinapatha: It literary means the route leading to the south. The term also referred to the entire southern region.
• Genealogy: It means a list of ancestors.
• Kumar-amatya: It referred to an important minister.
• Maha-danda-nayaka: It referred to the chief judicial officer.
• Nagara-shreshthi: It was the term used for the chief banker or merchant of the city.
• Prashasti: It is a Sanskrit word which means ‘in praise of. The court poets used to praise their rulers in glowing terms.
• Prathama-kulika: It was referred to the chief craftsman.
• Sandhi-Vigrahika: It meant a minister of war and peace.
• Sarbhavaha: The term used for the leader of the merchant caravans.
• Ur: It was a village assembly.

Dateline :

• About 1700 years ago—beginning of the Gupta dynasty.
• About 1400 years ago—the rule of Harshavardhana.

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Buildings, Paintings and Books – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The famous Iron Pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi is a remarkable example of the skill and art of the Indian crafts people.
• The pillar was made about 1500 years ago.
• The buildings such as stupas and temples also show the skill of country’s crafts persons. These buildings were made of brick and stone.
• The great stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, was built over several centuries.
• Amaravati was also a place where a magnificent stupa once existed.
• Some finest stone temples were built in towns like Mahabalipuram and Aihole.
• Building stupas and temples was an expensive affair. Therefore, only Kings and queens decided to build them. They spent money from their treasury to pay the crafts people who worked to build these splendid buildings.
• The paintings of Ajanta are world famous. This is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries. Most of these were monasteries and some of them were decorated with paintings.
• Some best-known epics were written during this period. For example—the Silappadikaram and the Manimekalai. These were Tamil epics written by llango and Sattanar respectively.
• Writers like Kalidasa wrote in Sanskrit. His best-known poem is the Meghaduta.
• The puranas which contained religious stories were also written during this time. These were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody including women and shudras.
• The Mahabharata and Ramayana, famous epics in Sanskrit had been popular for a long time.
• The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins.
• The Ramayana is about Rama, who was the prince of Kosala but was sent into exile for fourteen years.
• The Jatakas were collections of stories which were told by ordinary people.
• Books on science were also written during this period. Aryabhatta, a mathematician and astronomer wrote a book in Sanskrit called Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis. He also developed a scientific explanation for eclipses.

Words that Matter :

• Epic: It is a grand, long compositions about heroic men and women and include stories about gods.
• Garbhagriha: It was an important part of the temple where image of chief deity was placed.
• Jatakas: These were stories told by common people.
• Mandapa: It was a hall like structure built in the temple for the people to assemble.
• Painting: It is an art of laying on colours.
• Purana: It literary means old. The puranas contained stories about Hindu gods and goddesses.
• Stupa: It is a word that means a mound.
• Temple: It is a religious place for the Hindus.
• Shikhara: It refers to the tower of a temple.

Dateline :

• 2300 years ago — Beginning of Stupa building
• 2000 years ago — Amaravati
• 1600 years ago — Kalidasa
• 1500 years ago — Iron pillar, Temple at Bhitragaon, Paintings of Ajanta and Aryabhatta
• 1400 years ago — Durga Temple

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Understanding Diversity – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Everyone on earth differs from each other with respect to aspects like looks, behaviour, culture, religion, language, talent etc. This means that there is diversity among people in these aspects. Diversity means the lack of uniformity and the sense of variety.
• Inequality comes about among people when they have different access to resources and opportunities. The caste system, religion, financial well-being, education, etc. are various forms of inequality in the society.
• India is a country of several diversities. Since it is a very big country, people in different parts differ in their customs, language, habits, etc. These diversities arise from the fact that different regions have different histories and environments.
• Despite the diversities listed above, there are similarities that unite us. We all are Indian and during the freedom struggle, the whole country came together to send away the British, Irrespective of their diverse backgrounds. The Indian national flag is the most important national symbol and it reminds us of our unity in diversity.

Words that Matter :

• Diversity: The sense of variety that exists in the traits, looks, behaviour, culture, religion, language, abilities, resources and opportunities related to different people is said to be diversity.
• Inequality: The differences between two or more people that arise because of their abilities, resources and opportunities, or their caste, etc. are termed as inequalities.
• Habitat: The geographical area where a living being has adapted and lives comfortably is called the habitat of that living being.
• Resources: Anything that can be of any use in any activity is said to be a resource.
• The Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre: On April 13, 1919, a British general and his troops attacked a large meeting of unarmed people. Several men and women were killed brutally. This incident is called the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre after the name of the meeting place in Amritsar, Punjab.

Summary :

This anecdote is from Poile Sengupta’s ‘The Lights Changed. Samir befriends a small ragged newspaper boy while waiting for the traffic light to turn green. The friendship develops slowly over a period of few days. It shows that friendship can develop between two very different persons as well. Coincidentally, the newsboy’s name was also Samir. But he happened to be ‘a Muslim Samir’. The two Samirs came from different religions. Moreover, they have different opportunities. While one went to school, the other could not.

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Diversity and Discrimination – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• How we live, what we speak, what we eat and wear and what we play—all depend upon the historical background and geographical settings of the place we live in.
• Each of the eight major world religions is followed in India. There are over 1600 mothertongues and over a hundred dance forms.
• Many of us are prejudiced about people that differ from us—like we think our traits, religions, etc. to be the best and we automatically presume that those of others are not good. This is not a healthy trait of our diversity. In prejudice, we often hurt others.
• We also tend to create stereotypes—that is, we form one particular image—positive or negative—about something, without pondering over it carefully. The stereotype may be with respect to religion, place of origin or residence, sex, race, background, etc.
• When people act in a way that is driven by their prejudices or stereotypes, discrimination happens. In this, we prevent people from using their rights just because we thirik they are inferior.
• Castes were created as a result of discrimination on the basis of occupation of people. Rules were created by the people who called themselves upper caste. The group at the bottom of the caste ladder were labelled as “untouchable”.
• The “untouchables” were not allowed to take on work, other than what they were meant to do. People maintained distance from them. They were called ‘Dalits’.
• Many Dalits and women came forward to demand equality with other castes and men, respectively. When India became independent, the Constitution was made which laid down laws for equality among all Indians.
• Dr. Ambedkar, a Dalit himself who had suffered a lot, is considered the father of the Constitution.

Words that Matter:

• Prejudice: The tendency to judge other people negatively or consider them inferior is said to be prejudice.
• Stereotype: When one forms a particular image—positive or negative—about something, without thinking over it carefully, this is said to be stereotype. It may be with respect to one’s religion, place of origin or residence, sex, race, background, etc.
• Discrimination: When people act in a way that is due to their prejudice or stereotype, then discrimination takes place: For example, not sharing the same seat with a person of another caste is a form of discrimination.
• The Constitution: A document of national importance, that laid out the rules by which the nation would function, is the Constitution: It was prepared after India got independence.
• Untouchability: A form of discrimination in which a particular caste of people is considered impure by “upper-caste” people is called untouchability. That caste is called “untouchables”. This form of discrimination should be discouraged.
• The Preamble: The first page of the Constitution that presents a “summary” of the rules by which that nation must function, is called the Preamble.

Summary :

The extract is from “Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Writings and Speeches” (ed. Vasant Moon). It tells the story of a day when Ambedkar and his companions were discriminated against just because they were untouchables. The sense of discrimination was so much that the station master who met them refused to entertain them once he got to know their caste. Later, when the bullock- cart drivers came to know this, even they refused to carry them and afford getting “polluted” for even double the price. This is the first hand experience of Ambedkar, who later came up as one of the greatest leaders of India.

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What is Government – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Each country needs a government to make important decisions and function well. The decisions may be economic, educational or social.
• The government also takes care of the international boundaries and relations with other countries. It is responsible for the transport facilities and health facilities for citizens.
• The government works at different levels—like, local level, state level, national level.
• The government makes laws and every citizen is supposed to follow them. Laws need to be enforced for proper function of the government.
• Citizens can also take the help of law if they are dissatisfied with something.
• There are some types of government, like democratic, monarch, etc. In a democracy (like India), the people elect the government themselves by voting in the election. In a monarchy the king/queen has the power to make decisions and no one from the citizens can* object to them.
• The basic idea of democracy is that people rule themselves by taking part in the law-making.
• Nowadays, democratic governments are better known as ‘representative democracies’. People do not participate directly. They choose their representatives during elections and these representatives come together for the decision-making process. All adults in the country are eligible to vote according to the universal adult franchise.
• There are instances in history when governments did not allow women, the poor people and the uneducated to vote. But when India got independence, universal adult franchise was enforced.

Words that Matter:

• Government: The system or machinery present in each country in order to make decisions for the proper running of the country is called government.
• Laws: The rules laid down by the government for the proper functioning of the country are called laws.
• Democracy: A system of government in which the people (citizens) of the country choose their leaders to rule is called democracy. The elected government is answerable to its people for its decisions.
• Monarchy: A system of government which is run by a king/queen on a hereditary basis and where people do not get their say in decision-making is called a monarchy. The king/queen is said to be the monarch.
• Elections: The process in which citizens of a democratic country cast their votes for the leaders of their choice is called election. The elected leaders form a government later.
• Representative Democracy: A form of democracy in which people do not elect the government directly but only choose their representative, who collectively form a government is called representative democracy. Most democracies are representative in nature.
• Universal Adult Franchise: The rule that allows all adults in the country, irrespective of caste, creed, gender, literacy, occupation, etc., to vote and take part in the elections, is the universal adult franchise.

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Key Elements of a Democratic Government – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• In South Africa we can find people of several races — black native people, whites and Indians.
• The c’ountry was governed by apartheid laws. Apartheid means separation on the basis of race.
• South African people were divided into white, black, Indian and colored races and apartheid laws prevented them from getting mixed with each other.
• Non-white had to face several distinctions. They were not allowed to vote. Neither they availed other basic privileges.
• Hence, the African National Congress started a struggle against the apartheid system under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.
• Nelson Mandela fought for several years. Finally, South Africa became a democratic country in 1994. Now, there is no apartheid there and people of all races are considered equal.
• There are fixed periods for the governments that are elected. In India, once the government is elected, it can stay in power for five years. Thus, people participate in the process of government by using their voting rights.
• People also participate by taking an interest in working of the government and by criticising it when required.
• People express their views against government’s wrong decisions by holding dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature campaigns, etc.
• People also participate by organising themselves into social movements and seek to challenge the government and its functioning.
• The government plays a major role in resolving the conflicts if they occur among people of different cultures, religions, regions, etc.
• Religious processions and celebrations can sometimes lead to conflicts. Rivers can also
become a source of conflict between states. .
• Equality and justice are key elements of democracy.
• The practice of untouchability is now banned by law in order to bring equality and justice in the society.
• The government also takes steps to bring girl child on equal level with boy child.

Words that Matter :

• Apartheid: It refers to the system under which separation is practiced on the basis of race.
• Race: One of the main groups that humans can be divided into according to their physical differences, for example the color of their skin.
• Representative: The person elected through people’s voting right to take part in the system of governance.
• Participation: People’s involvement in the process of government.
• Conflict: Differences between people of various castes, cultures or creed. The conflict may arise in the name of region, religion, language, etc.
• Resolution: Solution of the conflict.

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Panchayati raj – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate and seek answers from their elected representatives.
• Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas.
• Each ward elects a representative who is known as the ward Member or Panch.
• The Gram Sabha members elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President.
• The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch together form the Gram Panchayat.
• The term of Gram Panchayat is five years.
• The Gram Panchayat and the Gram Sabha have one common secretary. The secretary is appointed by the government.
• It is the secretary who calls the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat.
• One of the main functions of the Gram Sabha is to prevent the Gram Panchayat from doing wrong things.
• The Gram Panchayat is responsible for the implementation of the developmental programmes for the villages that come under its jurisdiction.
• The Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate in their own government.
• The Panchayati Raj System is the first tier or level of democratic government. It extends to two other levels— Block level (Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti), District Panchayat (Zila Parishad).

Words that Matter:

• Gram Panchayat: It is the primary unit of governance in the Panchayati Raj System. It
consists of a Panchayat President and its members elected by the people through a general election. .
• Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is a meeting where people directly participate and seek answers from their elected representatives.
• Sarpanch: He is the Panchayat President.
• Panchayati Raj System: It is a process through which people participate in their own government.

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Rural Administration – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Every police station has an area that comes under its control. All persons in that area can report cases or inform the police about any occurrence like theft, accident, fight, etc.
• The police of that area then enquire, investigate and take action. Thus, the police maintain law and order in the area.
• Land disputes are common features of the villages. Hence, it is essential to maintain records so that conflicts may be avoided. Here, comes the role of the Patwari.
• Patwari is the person whose main task is to measure land and keep land records. He also updates these records.
• Each Patwari is responsible for a group of villages.
• The Patwari is also responsible for organising the collection of land revenue from the farmers and providing information to the government about the crops grown in this area.
• The revenue department of the government plays major role in this direction. Senior people in this department supervise the Patwari’s work.
• For managing matters relating to land districts are sub-divided, known as sub-divisions.
• These sub-divisions of a district are known by different names such as tehsil, taluka, etc.
• The District Collector is at the head. The revenue officers known as Tehsildars work under him.
• Hindu Succession Amendment Act was passed in 2005. According to this Act sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land.

Words that Matter:

• Police Station: It is a place where people register their complaints. Every police station has an area that comes under its control.All persons in that area can report cases or inform the police about any theft, accident, fight, injury or illegal occurrence etc.
• S.H.O: Station House Officer who is the person in-charge of the police station.
• Patwari: One whose job is to measure land and keep land records.
• Tehsildar: He is the revenue officer working under the District Collector.

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Urban Administration – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• In the city there is the Municipal Corporation that takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the markets clean.
• The Municipal Corporation is also responsible for ensuring that diseases do not break out in the city.
• In smaller towns these works are done by a little bit smaller organisation known as a
Municipal Council.
• The city is divided into different wards and ward councillors get elected.
• The complicated decisions that affect the entire city are taken by groups of Councillors who form committees to decide and debate issues.
• When the problems are within a ward then the people who live in the ward can contact their Councillors.
• After the decisions taken by Councillor’s Committees and the Councillors, the Commissioner and the administrative staff implement them.
• The Commissioner and the administrative staff are appointed while the Councillors are elected.
• As the city is so large, the work here is divided into different departments, such as the water department, the garbage collection departments, sanitation department, etc.

Words that Matter :

• Municipal Council: The organisation that looks after the welfare of small towns is known as Municipal Council.
• Municipal Corporation: The organisation that takes care of big cities is known as Municipal Corporation.
• Councillor: The elected representative of the ward.

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Rural Livelihoods – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• There are different ways in which people earn their living in villages.
• Vill&ge people are engaged in both farm activities and non-farm works, such as making utensils, baskets etc.
• There are agricultural labourers as well as big farmers.
• Working on farms involves operations such as preparing the land, sowing, weeding and harvesting of crops.
• In India nearly two out of every five rural families are agricultural labourer families.
• The members of these families usually work on other people’s fields to earn a living.
• In India, 80 percent of farmers belong to this group. Only 20 percent of India’s farmers are well-off.
• Many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc.

Words that Matter :

• Rural livelihoods: Different ways of earning living in rural areas.
• Pesticide: A chemical used for killing pests, especially insects.
• Migration: The movement of large number of people from one place to another to find jobs.
• Harvest: The act of cutting and gathering crops.
• Terrace Farming: This is a type of farming in which the land on a hill slope is made into flat plots and carved out in steps. The sides of each plot are raised in order to retain water. This allows water to stand in the field, which is suitable for rice cultivation.

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Urban Livelihoods – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Urban life is different from rural life.
• People of urban areas are engaged in different activities. Some are rickshaw pullers, some are vendors, some are business persons, some are shopkeepers, etc.
• These people work on their own. They are not employed by anyone.
• There are almost one crore street vendors in the country working in urban areas.
• In the urban market one can find a variety of shops—shops selling sweets, toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, etc. There are garment showrooms too.
• There are several business persons in the market who manage their own shops or business. They are not employed by anyone. But they do employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers.
• The urban market has small offices and shops that provide services, such as banks, courier services and others.
• A number of daily wage labourers can be found in the city. They work as helpers to mansons.
• Several urban people are engaged in factories, such as garment factories.
• In garment factories most workers are usually employed on as casual basis. They are required to come as and when the employer needs them.
• Jobs on casual basis are not permanent. There is no job security. Workers are expected to work very long hours. They do not get any facility.
There are many workers in the city who work in offices, factories and government departments where they are employed as regular and permanent workers.
• Permanent and regular workers avail several benefits such as saving for old age, holidays, medical facilities etc.
• In big cities, working in call centres has become a new form of employment.
• Call centres are generally set up as large rooms with work stations that include a computer, a telephone set and supervisor’s stations.
• India has become a major centre not only for Indian companies but also foreign companies.

Words that Matter :

• Vendor: One who sells things of daily use by going door to door.
• Urban areas: Towns and cities.
• Business person: One who earns his livelihood by engaging himself in some business.
• Employer: One who gives job to someone.
• Casual worker: One who is engaged in temporary work.
• Labour chowk: A place where daily wage labourers gather together with their tools and wait for people to come and hire them for work.
• Call centre: It gives a new form of employment to the people of big cities. It is a centralised office that deals with problems and questions that consumers/customers have regarding goods purchased and services like banking, ticket booking, etc.
• Hawker: One who sells things by going from place to place asking people to buy them.

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The Earth in the Solar System – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The Stars and the MOON are celestial bodies which are visible only at night in the sky. During daytime, the power of the sun’s light renders them invisible.
• The moon appears differently on different nights—like the Full Moon only once a month, on the poornima night whereas on the fifteenth night after that, there is no moon in the sky (amavasya).
• Some celestial bodies are big and hot since they are made of gases. They are called Stars. The sun is also a star. We do not feel the heat and light of the stars other than the sun since they are very far away from us.
• Groups of stars that are visible in definite patterns are called Constellations. Ursa Major (the Big Bear), The Small Bear (Saptarishi), etc are some well-known constellations.
• The Pole Star is known to retain the same position every night in the sky. It is also called the North Star since it helps in knowing the North direction.

• There are celestial bodies that do not have their own heat and light. They reflect the light they get from stars. Such bodies are the Planets. We live on the earth, a planet. Most planets have Satellites, which are celestial bodies that revolve around a particular planet. The moon is the only satellite of the earth.
• The earth and moon are part of a bigger system (or family) of celestial-bodies, called the Solar System. The sun is the “head” of this system, and is present at its centre. The planets revolve around the sun, while the satellite revolves around the placets. The planets, in addition to revolving around the sun, also rotate about their own axis.
• The sun is made of extremely hot gases, and it provides heat and light to the rest of the solar system. It is about 150 million kilometres away from the earth.
• All the planets of the solar system are listed below: (in the order of their distance from sun)
(i) Mercury (planet nearest to the Sun)
(ii) Venus
(iii) Earth
(iv) Mars
(v) Jupiter
(vi) Saturn
(vii) Uranus
(viii) Neptune

Mnemonic:

to memorise the names of the eight planets in the order of their distance from the sun
My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts
where the beginning of each word is the same as the first letter of the planet existing at that position in the order (check the list above)
• Till August 2006, Pluto was also a planet. But it is now recognised as a “dwarf planet”.
• The shape of the earth is called a Geoid. This means it is not perfectly spherical, since it is flattened at the poles. The earth is probably the only planet that can support life. This is because its temperature, resources like water and oxygen, etc are present in the proportions appropriate for life. The earth, with its 2/3 rd of surface covered with water, appears blue from space and is called Blue Planet.
• The Moon’s diameter is 1/4 th of that of the earth. It is 3,84,400 km away from earth. It completes a revolution around the earth in about 27 days. Incidentally, it also takes around the same time for a rotation about its own axis. It does not support life.
• There are several other tiny bodies in space (the Asteroids) that move around the sun. There is a “belt” of such objects, called the Asteroid Belt, between Mars and Jupiter.
• There exist small pieces of rocks (Meteroids) which also move around the sun.
The Milky Way is the galaxy (a huge system of billions of stars) we live in. The Milky Way is further a part of a bigger collection of galaxies, called the Universe, (refer Flow¬Learning)

Words that Matter :

• Celestial Body: An object in the universe (but not on the earth) is said to be a celestial body. Examples are sun, earth, moon, stars, etc.
• Star: A celestial body that is characterized by being very hot and big, and made of gases is a star. A star typically has its own heat and light.
• Full Moon Nigh: A night when the moon is visible from the earth as a full sphere is called the Full Moon night, and it occurs once a month.
• New Moon Night: The fifteenth night after the Full Moon night, when the moon is not visible at all in the sky, is called the New Moon night.
• Constellation: A group of several stars which can usually be recognized by a definite pattern is called a constellation. An example is Ursa Major.
• Planets: A celestial body which revolves around a particular star in an orbit, and gets all its light from that star, is called a planet. Earth is a planet.
• Satellites: A celestial body which revolves around a planet in a particular orbit is called a satellite. The moon is a satellite of the Earth.
• Orbit: The particular and definite elliptical path in which a planet (or satellite) always remains, is called the orbit of that planet (or satellite).

• Sun: The Sun is a star that acts as the “head” of the solar system and around which all planets revolve: Note that the sun is not at the center of the orbit, instead it is like in the figure above.
• Inner Planets: The Inner Planets are the planets that orbit around the sun between the sun and the asteroid belt, that is, are close to the sun. These are: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
• Outer Planets: The Outer Planets are the planets that orbit the sun beyond the asteroid belt, that is, are very far away from the sun. These are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
• Geoid: The shape of the earth is called a geoid. A geoid is spherical except for the flattening at two places diametrically opposite to each other.
• Poles: The two places diametrically opposite to each other and which lie on the axis about which a spherical body rotates are called poles.
• Asteroids: A large number of tiny celestial bodies which move around the sun, and are mainly present in a belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, are called Asteroids.
• Meteoroid: Small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.
• Galaxy: A galaxy is a collection of innumerable stars. Most stars have their own families like the solar system. The Milky Way is the galaxy in which we live.
• Universe: The Universe is the largest unit in which we live. It is a collection of galaxies. There is only one Universe, and everything that exists, exists in this Universe itself.

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Globe Latitudes and Longitudes – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The Globe is a true model of the earth, in a small form. A needle, called the Axis is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner.
• The axis of the globe passes through two extreme points: known as the Poles (the North Pole and the South Pole). This axis is shown in the form of a needle on the globe. The real earth has no such axis.
• The circle passing through the centre of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is called the Equator. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the Northern and the Southern. We can imagine a number of more circles parallel to the equator, having their centres on the axis and having different radii. These circles are called Parallels of Latitudes.
• The parallels are identified with the help of degrees. The equator represents the zero degrees latitude. The latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere are designated as degrees north (°N), e.g. 10°N, 20°N, and so on till 90°N (which is the North Pole). Similarly the latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere are designated as degrees south (°S), and 90°S is the South Pole.
• The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the equator, and parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian. It divides the earth into two Hemispheres, the Eastern and the Western. Together, the Equator and the Prime Meridian divide the earth into four equal parts. We can imagine a number of more circles parallel to the Prime Meridian, having their centre at the centre of the earth, and having equal radii. These circles are called Degrees of Longitudes.
• The longitudes are identified with the help of degrees. The Prime Meridian represents
the zero degrees longitude. The longitudes in the Eastern Hemisphere are designated as degrees east (°E), e.g. 10°E, 20°E, and so on till 180°. Similar is the case with the Western Hemisphere.
• Degrees are further divided into minutes and minutes into seconds. Note that the symbol
for a minute is an apostrophe (‘) and that for a second is a double apostrophe (“). 60′ (60 minutes) make up a degree and 60″ (60 seconds) make up a minute. So 30’ means half a degree and 40” means two-thirds of a minute.
• Two points on earth can lie on the same latitude but still be far away from each other. Also, two distant points may lie on the same longitude. But only one point lief on a particular pair of latitude and longitude. So latitudes and longitudes are helpful in locating a point on earth.

• The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. They are at 23 1/2° N and 66 1/2° N respectively.
• The Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are studied as special latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. They are at 23 1/2° S and 66 1/2° S respectively.
• The area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn receive maximum heat from the Sun and this region is called the Torrid Zone.
• The area between the Artie Circle and the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere, and that between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern, have moderate temperatures. These regions are the Temperate Zones.
• The area north to the Arctic Circle and that south to the Antarctic Circle are close to the Poles and receive the sunlight of very low intensity. So it is very cold here. These regions are called the Frigid Zones.

• The Frigid Zones, the Temperate Zones and the Torrid Zone are called the Heat Zones.
• The sun does not shine equally on all longitudes at a time. When it is 12 noon at a time, it means that the sun is not at all visible at the place on the other side of the earth. ‘So it must be midnight there. In fact, we can say that the time difference is 24 hours at 360 degrees longitudes apart. So every longitude brings a difference of 4 minutes. This gives us the concept of Time Zones. Two consecutive time zones differ by an hour. The time at a particular place is said to be the local time.
• It may happen that a certain country extends over a long range of longitudes, thus giving a large amount of time difference. E.g. Russia extends over eleven time zones. India actually extends over a range of a 2-hour time difference. But this is not too much, so for convenience and for uniformity, we have a standard meridian set at Allahabad (82° 30’), which gives the time for all over India. This time is called the Indian Standard Time (1ST).

Words that Matter :

• Globe: The globe is a model of the earth, as it is, but in a very small and convenient form. It shows all continents, countries and oceans, labeled.
• Axis: The imaginary line about which the earth rotates once in 24 hours is called its axis.
• Poles: The two extreme points of the axis are called the Poles. One of them is the North Pole and the other is the South Pole.
• Equator: The circle passing through the center of the earth, and perpendicular to the axis, is called the equator.
• Prime Meridian: The circle passing through Greenwich in Britain, and perpendicular to the equator, and parallel to the axis, is called the Prime Meridian.
• Latitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Equator is called latitude. The latitudes have their centers on one common line and they have different radii.
• Longitude: One of the imaginary circles parallel to the Prime Meridian is called longitude. The longitudes have their centers at the center of the earth and have same radius as the Earth.
• Hemisphere: One of the two equal halves of the earth’s spherical shape is called a hemisphere. If the earth is halved along the equator, we get the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. If we halve it perpendicular to the equator, we get the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.
• Heat Zones: Heat zones are the different zones of the earth, where the sun’s rays fall differently, thus causing different climate patterns. These zones are called the Torrid Zone, the two Temperate Zones, and the two Frigid Zones.
• Greenwich: Greenwich is a place in the United Kingdom, near London, whose time is used as a standard all over the world. The Prime Meridian passes through this place, and so it is the place which divides the earth into the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.
• Standard Time:  Standard time of a country or region is the time regarded as a standard for that place, despite the fact that there exists time difference geographically across that region. It is used only for convenience.

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Motions of the Earth – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The earth has two types of motions—rotation and revolution.
• Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. In revolution the earth moves around the sun in a fixed path or orbit.
• The axis of the earth is an imaginary line.
• The earth receives light from the sun. As the shape of the earth is spherical, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time. The other half remains dark. In this way day and night are caused.
• The earth completes one rotation around its axis in about 24 hours. This rotation is the daily motion of the earth.
• The earth takes 365 14 days or one year to complete one revolution around the sun.
• There are four seasons in a year—summer, winter, spring and autumn. Seasons change due to the change in the position of the earth around the sun.
• The rays of sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Hence, these areas are hot.
• The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
• In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the summer solstice.
• When there is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere enjoys winter season and vice-versa.
• In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is known as the winter solstice.
• On 21st March and September 23rd the whole earth experiences equal’days and equal nights. This is phenomenon is known as equinox.
• On 23rd September, it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Sourthern Hemisphere.
• On 21st March, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Sourthern Hemisphere.
• Days and nights occur due to rotation while changes in seasons occur due to revolution.

Words that Matter:

• Rotation: The movement of the earth on its axis is known as rotation.
• Revolution: The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is known as revolution.
• Orbital plane: The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
• Circle of illumination: The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• Leap year: The year in which February is of 29 days instead of 28 days is called a leap year.
• Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day and the shortest night occur on 21st June. In the Southern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called summer solstice.
• Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere the shortest day and the longest night occur on 22nd December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest day and the shortest night occur on this day. This position of the earth is called winter solstice.
• Equinox: On 21st March and September 23rd the entire earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is known as equinox.

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Maps – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale.
• Maps are of different types—physical maps, political maps and thematic maps.
• Physical maps show natural features of the earth, political maps show cities, towns, countries etc. with their boundaries and thematic maps focus on some particular information such as maps showing distribution of population.
• The three components of maps are distance, direction and symbol.
• A scale is needed to represent a small distance on paper for a large distance on the ground. Thus, scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map.
• A small scale map is used to show large areas like continents or countries on a paper.
• A large scale map is used to show a small area like village or town on a paper.
• There are four major directions—North, South, East and West, known as cardinal points.
• There are four intermediate directions—north-east (NE), south-east (SE), south-west (SW) and north-west (NW).
• Symbols are used to show features like buildings, roads, bridges, etc. on the map. By using symbols we make the map very informative.
• Maps have a universal language. There is an international agreement regarding the use of these symbols. These are called conventional symbols.
• A sketch map is a rough drawing without scale.
• A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

Words that Matter:

• Map: It is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale.
• Scale: It is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map.
• Cardinal points: The four directions—North, South, East and West—are called cardinal points.
• Symbols: To represent buildings, roads, bridges, etc. on the map we use symbols. These symbols are of universal significance.
• Sketch: A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale.
• Plan: A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

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Major Domains of the Earth – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The earth is the only planet where human beings find three life sustaining elements—
land, water and air.
• The surface of the earth is a complex zone. Here three main components of the environment—lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere meet, overlap and interact.
• The lithosphere refers to the solid portion of the earth where we live.
• The atmosphere refers to the gaseous layers which surrounding the earth.
• The hydrosphere refers to the water bodies that exist on the earth’s surface.
• Biosphere is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together. Life exists here.
• The earth’s surface is divided into continents and ocean basins.
• Continents are large landmasses of the earth while ocean basins are huge water bodies.
• Mount Everest is the highest mountain peak. Its height is 8,848 metres above the sea level.
• The greatest depth of 11,022 metres is recorded at Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.
• There are seven continents—Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia and Antarctica.
• Asia is the largest continent while Australia is the smallest continent.
• Antarctica is permanently covered with thick ice sheets. Hence, it is not suitable for human settlement.
• More than 71% of the earth is covered with water and 29% is with land.
• More than 97% of the earth’s water is found in the oceans. Ocean water is salty. It is of no human use. A large proportion of the rest of the water is in the form of ice sheets and glaciers or under the ground. Only 0.03% of water is available as fresh water which is usable by human beings.
• There are four major oceans—the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean in order of their size.
• The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named after a country, i.e. India.
• The atmosphere is divided into five layers. These layer starting from earth’s surface
are—the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.
• The atmosphere is composed of several gases—Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), other gases like carbondioxide, argon and others comprise 1%.
• Oxygen is essential for our life. We can not live without it. Nitrogen is essential for the growth of living organisms. Carbondioxide absorbs heat radiated by the earth and in this way it keeps the earth warm. It is also essential for plants.
• Biosphere is the zone where life exists. From tiny microbes and bacteria to huge mammals are found in the biosphere. There is a close link between all these organisms including humans.
• The organisms in the biosphere are divided into plant kingdom and the animal kingdom.
• The three domains of the earth interact with each other and affect each other. For example: emission from industries pollute the air.
• Increase in the amount of C02 leads to increase in global temperatures which is known as global warming.

Words that Matter :

• Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth on which we live is termed as the lithosphere.
• Atmosphere: The gaseous layers that surround the earth is known as the atmosphere.
• Hydrosphere: The water bodies on the earth’s surface is known as hydrosphere.
• Biosphere: It is the narrow zone where land, water and air together are found. All forms of life exists here.
• Continents: The large landmasses are called continents.
• Ocean basins: The huge water bodies are called the ocean basins.
• Strait: It is a narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and oceans.
• Isthmus: It is a narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.
• Plant Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of plants and trees.
• Animal Kingdom: The part of biosphere consisting of animal.
• Global warming: Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide leads to increase in the global temperatures. This is known as global warming.

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Major Landforms of the Earth – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere.
• Mountains, plateaus and plains are different landforms of the earth.
• A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface. There are three types of mountains—Fold mountains, Block mountains and Volcanic mountains.
• A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes.
• The Deccan plateau is one of the oldest plateaus.
• The Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world.
• Plains are large stretches of flat land. Some plains are extremely level while others may be slightly rolling and undulating.
• Plains are generally thickly populated regions of the world.
• Human habitation is found on different kinds of land forms. But population varies on these landforms. Mountains are generally not thickly populated. But plains are the regions where thick population is found.
• Land is precious. We must not use it in a wasteful manner. Construction work of any type should not carried on fertile land. Also, we should not throw garbage on land. It is our duty to take care of the land or any other natural gift. If we do this we will be conscious citizens.

Words that Matter:

• Erosion: The wearing away of the earth’s surface is known as erosion.
• Mountain: A mountain is a natural elevation of the earth surface.
• Glacier: Some mountains have permanently frozen river of ice. They are called glaciers.
• Range: When mountains are in an arranged line, it is called a range.
• Horsts and graben: The uplifted blocks are known as horsts and the lowered blocks are known as graben.
• Storehouse: A building where things are stored or kept.
• Terraces: One of the series of flat areas of ground which are cut into the side of a hill like steps in order to grow crops there.
• Flora: The plants of a particular area.
• Fauna: The animals living in an area.
• Plateau: A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding area.
• Plain: A plain is a vast stretch of flat land where thick population is found.

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Our Country India – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Our country, India is vast. It has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. In the north, it is surrounded by the Himalayas; in the west; there is the Arabian Sea; in the east; the Bay of Bengal and in the south; the Indian Ocean.
• India has a diverse landforms—the lofty mountains, the Great Indian Desert, the Northern plains, the uneven plateau, and the coasts and islands.
• The climate of India also varies from region to region.
• We also find diversity in flora and fauna as well as in language and culture.
• India is the second most populous country of the world after China.
• India is located in the Northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer passes through it.
• The sun rises two hours earlier in the east, i.e. Arunachal Pradesh than in the west,
i. e. Gujarat.
• India’s seven neighbouring countries are—Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Afganistan.
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
• India is divided into 28 states and 7 Union Territories. Delhi is the national capital.
• Rajasthan is the largest state while Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.
• India has a diverse physical features—mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and islands.
• The Himalayas mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges—the Great Himalaya or Himadri, Middle Himalaya or Himachal and the Shiwalik.
• To the south of the Himalayas lie the Northern Indian plains.
• In the western part of India lies the Great Indian desert with little vegetation.
• To the south of northern plains lies the Peninsular plateau. It is triangular in shape. This is a region with numerous hill ranges and valleys. The Aravali hills, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras are the important ranges.
• The Western Ghats border the plateau in the west and the Eastern Ghats provide the
eastern boundary.
• To the west of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains.
• Lakshadweep islands are located in the Arabian sea while Andaman and Nicobar islands group lie to the south-east of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal.

Words that Matter :

• Peninsula: A piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides.
• Island: A piece of land that is surrounded by water on all sides.
• Desert: A vast sandy stretch of land.
• Alluvial deposits: Fine soil brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
• Tributary: A small river or stream that contributes its water to the main river by discharging it into main river from either side.
• Delta: An area of land formed at the mouth of the river. It is usually triangular in shape.
• Corals: These are skeletons of tiny marine animals called polyps.
• Tsunami: A strong and devastative harbour wave, generated due to an earthquake on the sea floor.
• Strait: A narrow passage of water connecting two large waterbodies like seas and oceans.

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India Climate Vegetation and Wildlife – CBSE Notes for Class 6 Social

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Facts that Matter:

• Weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It may be hot or cold, Sunny or cloudy, windy or calm.
• There are four main seasons in India—cold weather season (winter) December to February, hot weather season (summer) March to May, southwest monsoon season (rainy) June to September and season of retreating monsoon (autumn) October to November.
• Hot wind called loo blows during summer.
• Climate is about the average weather condition which has been measured over many years.
• The climate of India is monsoon type. It means, most of the rain is brought by monsoon winds.
• The climate of a place is affected by its location, attitude, distance from the sea and relief.
• Jaisalmer and Bikaner in Rajasthan are very hot, Drass and Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir are very cold and coastal places are moderate. Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s highest rainfall.
• India has a wide range of natural vegetation—Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical deciduous forest, Thorny bushes, Mountain vegetation and Mangrove forests.
• Tropical rain forests occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.
• Tropical deciduous forests are also called monsoon forests.
• Thorny bushes are found in dry areas of the country.
• Mangrove forests are found in Sunderbans in West Bengal and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Forests are very useful for all the living beings. They are the natural habitat of wildlife.
• Van Mahotsav is a programme which involves more and more people in making the earth green.
• The tiger is our national animal. Gir forest of Gujarat is the home of Asiatic lions.
• The peacock is our national bird.
• There are several hundreds of species of snakes found in India.
• The government has started Project Tiger and Project Elephant to protect these animals.

Words that Matter :

• Weather: Weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It includes changes in temperature, rainfall and sunshine etc.
• Loo: It is a hot and dry wind that blows during the day in Summer.
• Climate: Climate is the average weather condition which have been measured over many years.
• Moonsoon: The word monsoon has been taken from the Arabic word ‘mansim’ which means seasons.
• Wildlife: All the wild animals and birds found in the forests, national parks and Sanctuaries.
• Van Mahotsav: It is a special programme organized time to time to promote people for planting more and more trees.
• Natural vegetation: The grasses, shrubs and trees that grow on their own without human interference or help are known as natural vegetation.
• Migratory birds: Birds that migrate to our country in the winter season every year. They arrive in December and stay till early March.

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एक दिन की बादशाहत – CBSE Notes for Class 5 Hindi

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